Natural History Museum Libra
300009433
BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY).
DAYS AND HOURS OF ADMISSION.
The Exhibition Galleries are open to the Public, free, every week-
day in
January, from 10 a.m. till 4 = Pw.
February, ee eae ae
March, | ediS gg! “rome | gan Sha
April to August, eae
September, ey ee pe. | ee
October, oe Ses ae 33
November and December, ae ee a
Also, from May Ist to the middle of July, on Mondays and Saturdays
only, till 8 p.m.,
and from the middle of July to the end of August, on Mondays and
Saturdays only, till 7 p.m.
The Museum is also open on Sunday afternoons throughout the
year.
The Museum is closed on Good-Friday and Christmas-Day.
By Order of the Trustees,
W. H. FLOWER,
Director.
x % ae A. at oe AL ry wr — * anal
Ne fh 23 MAR wi
GUIDE
GALLERY
OF
IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
OF THE
BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY)
CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, 8.W.
ILLUSTRATED BY 76 TEXT AND OTHER FIGURES
tt LONDON
-—-s« PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES
1906
All rights reserved
PRICE SIXPENCE
“IOVASTJUOLY |
“baw smoopordug. 40 NOLATANMG FHL AO INGOT, AHL ONIMOHS ‘ISVH-HLNOG AHL WOU GHMHIA ‘AUHIIVS) ATIdaY AH,
Cu
GWT Dee
TO THE
GALLERY OF
REPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA
IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
OF THE
BRITISH. MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY)
CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, 8.W.
of y
; Sr. 2)
w pt SDs Se
Cp es
Rar nie
ILLUSTRATED BY 76 TEXT AND OTHER FIGURES
LONDON
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES
1906
All rights reserved
~ UL UDSH
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W.
PREFACE
—_++—
THE Reptilian Gallery in the Zoological Department of the Museum
is primarily devoted to the exhibition of specimens of recent
Reptilia and Amphibia, the extinct forms being displayed in a
gallery in the Geological Department, to which there is a special
guide-book. Recent Reptiles cannot, however, be understood with-
out some knowledge of the extinct kinds; and it has accordingly
been deemed advisable to exhibit specimens of a few characteristic
examples of each of the more important extinct groups. In addition
to these, from considerations of space, the skeleton of the great
Dinosaur Diplodocus presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie is exhibited
in this gallery.
The specimens are numbered consecutively, commencing with
the Crocodilia and going round the gallery to the Chameleons.
After the latter come the Amphibia. The groups are not described
in quite the same sequence in this Guide; at the same time every
specimen is numbered, and the corresponding number can be found
in the Guide without any difficulty.
It must be remembered that only a few selected species are
exhibited in this gallery, and that the bulk of the Museum collection
of Reptiles and Amphibians is preserved in the spirit-house and
1V PREFACE. .-
store-rooms, to which this Guide does not refer. The process-blocks
are from photographs of actual specimens in the Museum, and were
| prepared under my immediate superintendence. The Guide has
been written by Mr. R. Lydekker, F.R.S. Some of the woodcuts
are borrowed from the ‘Cambridge Natural History,’ others are
from publications already issued by the Trustees.
E. RAY LANKESTER,
DIRECTOR.
BritisH.Museum (Naturat History),
Lonpon, S.W.
March 7th, 1906.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
I—THE REPTILE SERIES.
Cuass REPTILIA.
PAGE
CHARACTERISTICS OF REPTILES. : ; ‘ : ; ; 1
CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES : : : ; - ‘ F 3
ORDER ORNITHOSAURIA (PTERODACTYLES) ; : : 5 4
nf Dryosauria (DINOSAURS) . : : 5
., CRocopILIA (CROCODILES). ‘ . ; 8
7a <HYNCHOCEPHALIA (TUATERAS) . ; ‘ F 11)
,, PELYCOSAURIA . ‘ z : j P “ : : 13
5» SQUAMATA (SNAKES AND LIZARDS) : F 13
»» ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (ICHTHYOSAURS) . : : : & 0 coe
., CuHeELoniA (ToRTOISES AND TURTLES) et
a SAUROPTERYGIA (PLESIOSAURS) . : : : : 4 58
(PLACODONTIA) . , 60
» THEROMORPHA. : ; ; ; ; : : ; 60
I]—THE AMPHIBIAN SERIES.
Crass AMPHIBIA, or BATRACHIA,
ORDER ANuRA (FROGS AND ToaDs) : : , , ; igen OS
» URODELA (SALAMANDERS AND NEWTs) ; ; : . 69
5 Apopa (LimsBLEss AMPHIBIANS) : ; : F ; 74
»» STEGOCEPHALA (LABYRINTHODON'S) . : : : may
b
ha tey cir
=.
tp
é
of
op Gri bas
TO THE
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
————_
I.—THE REPTILE SERIES.
Class REPTILIA.
AccorDING to popular ideas, all cold-blooded vertebrate (back-
boned) animals which do not come under the designation of Fishes
are denominated Reptiles. The naturalist, on the other hand,
divides these creatures into two main groups or classes, each
of which is of equivalent rank to the Mammalia (Mammals) or
Aves (Birds).
The first class—Reptilia—comprises the true Reptiles, such as
crocodiles, snakes, lizards, and tortoises, and is characterised by the
fact that the young (whether hatched from eggs or born alive)
resemble their parents in most things except size and, perhaps, some
details of colouring, as soon as they come into the world and breathe
atmospheric air. Another feature is that the skull is attached movably
to the first joint of the back-bone, or first vertebra, by means of a
single knob, or “‘ condyle” (fig. 1, a), which usually consists of three
separate portions, one in the middle and two at the sides. In the
presence of this single knob Reptiles resemble Birds and differ from
Mammals. They also agree with the former and differ from the
latter in that the lower jaw consists of a number of separate pieces
and is joined to the skull by means of an extra bone, the quadrate-
bone (fig. 1, ¢).
The second class—Amphibia—includes, on the other hand, such
creatures as newts, salamanders, frogs, and toads, in the great
B
2 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
majority of which the young come into the world as aquatic animals
(“tadpoles”), breathing the air dissolved in water by means of gills,
but subsequently undergo a marked change (metamorphosis) into
the adult form, when atmospheric air is breathed by means of
lungs. It is true that in some cases the gill-bearing tadpole form
is retained throughout life (the creature breeding in this condition),
and also that in other instances the animal comes into the world
in the permanent air-breathing condition. In the latter case
the larval stages are passed through within the body of the
Back view of Skull of Crocodile, without the lower jaw. To show the single
knob, or ‘‘condyle” (0), by which the skull is articulated to the first
joint of the back-bone, or vertebral column; and the quadrate-bone (q),
to the lower end of which the lower jaw would be attached.
female parent or, more rarely, within the shell of an egg which is
laid (Cecilians). In existing Amphibians the skull is articulated to
the first vertebra by means of two knobs, or “condyles,” as in
Mammals.
At the present day Reptiles and Amphibians are sharply distin-
guished from one another, and while the former show many decided
relationships to Birds (still more emphasised in some of their extinct
predecessors), the latter do not exhibit any such affinity.
When, however, extinct Reptiles and Amphibians are taken into
CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES. 3
consideration, it is found that there are close approximations between
the two classes, and that the one group is probably descended from
the other. The descent is, however, not apparently to be traced
through a single line. On the contrary, while the great majority
of Reptiles seem to trace their origin to one extinct group
of Amphibians (the Microsauria), one particular extinct group of
the former, namely, the Theromorpha, shows evidence of descent
from a second group of Amphibians (the Labyrinthodonta). From
the first great branch of Reptilia, which includes all the ‘ orders”
in the following table except the last, Birds seem to have been
derived ; so that the whole assemblage may be termed the Bird-like
Reptiles.
The tenth order of Reptiles, on the other hand, which has been
long since extinct, exhibits remarkable indications of affinity with
Mammals, this being displayed in the character of the teeth, of the
skull, and of the limb-bones; and it is probable that this group
represents the ancestral stock from which Mammals are derived.
Indeed, there are certain South African fossils in regard to which it
is difficult to say whether they should be referred to Reptiles or
Mammals.
The following table exhibits the chief sub-divisions of the class
Reptilia, that is to say, the orders and sub-orders under which the
various families are arranged. Those groups which are extinct are
indicated by a ¢; and it will be noticed that the proportion of these
extinct groups is very large indeed—much larger than in the case of
either Mammals or Birds. The explanation of this is that Reptiles
are a very ancient group, which attained its maximum development
when Mammals and Birds were in their infancy ; hence the extinc-
tion of a large number of groups.
CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILIA.
ORDER. SUB-ORDER. CASE.
es I. }ORNITHOSAURIA. . . } 4
ie (Pterodactyles.) Eig Bier TT
a ‘
5 1 + DINOSAURIA ct tay Wh Pet A eae Ries f ang
ja nese) 3. Ornithopoda
eI
5 1. Eusuchia .
3 III. Crocoprria, or Emypo- | 5° sastosauria | |) me
2 iGroscail Sadia * ) 3. ¢Parasuchia, or Phyto- =
aa (Crocodiles.) sauria. & eA: }
B 2
4 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILIA—continued.
ORDER. SUB-ORDER CASE.
1. +Protorosauria. . :
Ny Arey * * ¢ 2, Rhynchocephalia Vera. 5
: 3. tAcrosauria :
VY. +PELYCOSAURIA . . Os ee ee ee ne 5
1. Ophidia
D 2. Lacertilia . Epiae © 2
4 = Ae keg Rl ieacetl . 3. Rhiptogilossa . . . . }11-20
Et (Snake pe: 4, +Dolichosauria :
= 5. tPythonomorpha .
EB VII. tIcHTHYOPTERYGIA . ia 17
5 (Ichthyosaurs.) “dation CE fal ca ha pe
a 1. Athece .
ef) 2. Cryptodira . thd ake
WEY. eine iiss and'T Turties.) 3. Plearodira:. i>.) tite) 6-10
4, tAmphichelydia
5. Trionychoidia .
IX, Ebley
16
(Pleriosaurs.)
= [tPracopontTia] . . . Ofunecertain position . . 5
[=<
aa 1. Dicynodontia . ;
we X. ¢TurromorpHa . . . | 2. Theriodontia . . . . P
= (Anomodonts.) 3. Cotylosauria
Bre 4. Pariasauria
=
In the gallery the larger specimens are arranged either on stands
or in table-cases, and the rest in the wall-cases. Owing to differences
in the sizes of the wall-cases, it has not, however, been found possible
to make the serial arrangement of the various groups correspond
exactly with the one adopted in this guide.
The following is a brief survey of the leading characteristics of
the different orders and sub-orders of reptiles, and also of the more
important family groups by which existing orders and sub-orders are
represented.
Order I—ORNITHOSAURIA (eztinct).
(Case 4.)
Pterodactyles, as the members of this extinct order are called,
flourished during the Mesozoic, or Secondary, epoch, and are dis-
tinguished by the modification of the fore-limbs into wings, the
lane, 2
Fic. 3.
Figs. 2,3,4.—Ricur WINGS OF A PTERODACTYLE (2), A BIRD (3), AND A Bar (4).
To show difference in structure of Skeleton.
(From Lankester’s ‘‘ Extinct Animals.’’)
[To face page 5.
DINOSAURS. a
membrane of which was attached to the side of the body and supported
by the elongated outermost digit, or finger (fig. 2). They are further
characterised by the fixed quadrate-bone and the double temporal
arches of the bird-like skull. The teeth, when present, are conical
and implanted in distinct sockets confined to the margins of the jaws.
Fig. 5.
Restoration of a Long-tailed Pterodactyle (Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus), from
the Upper Jurassic Lithographic Stone of Bavaria; one-seventh nat. size.
There are only four digits in the fore-limb, but five in the hind-one.
Many of the bones are hollow. The tail is of variable length; in
the long-tailed Rhamphorhynchus (88) it terminated in a racket-
shaped membranous expansion. In Pterodactylus, Rhamphorhyn-
chus (36), and Scaphognathus (86 and 37) teeth are present, but they
are wanting in Pteranodon of the Cretaceous, some of the species of
which had a wing-spread of twenty feet. In spite of certain resem-
blances, Pterodactyles have no affinity to Birds, as is shown by the
difference in the structure of the wing (figs. 2 and 3).
Order II.-—DINOSAURIA (eztinct).
(Case 4 and middle of gallery.)
The members of this order, which includes the largest of all
known land animals, are confined (in the main, at least) to the
Mesozoic, or Secondary, period of geological history, and thus ceased
to exist many thousands of years before man made his appearance
on the globe. In most characters Dinosaurs are closely allied to
Crocodiles, with the typical forms of which they agree in the fixed
quadrate-bone and the double temporal arches of the skull, the
restriction of the teeth, which may be implanted in distinct sockets,
6 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
to the margins of the jaws, the two-headed ribs, the absence of a
perforation in the lower end of the humerus, and the adaptation of
the limbs for walking.
They differ in that the ischia, or anterior elements of the lower
part of the pelvis, unite in the middle line of the abdomen, and by
the circumstance that when the vertebre articulate by cup-and-ball
joints, the cup (except occasionally in the tail) is behind (opistho-
ceelous). No Dinosaurs have the pitted bony plates found in most
Crocodiles.
The group is divided into four sub-orders :—
I. Savropopa.—Includes gigantic herbivorous, plantigrade Rep-
tiles, walking on all four limbs, with teeth in the front of
both jaws, the pubes of the pelvis simple and meeting in the
middle line of the abdomen, and the trunk-vertebree with
lateral cavities. The teeth are spatulate, with smooth edges.
Some of the species, ike Brontosaurus, were about sixty feet
in length and ten in height. Generally, as in Cardiodon
(Cetiosaurus) and Diplodocus (41), the skull is small.
II. THERopopA.—The members of this group differ from the
Sauropoda by their digitigrade feet, carnivorous habits,
laterally-compressed and serrated teeth, and the absence of
excavations in the trunk-vertebre. Many of them, like
Megalosaurus (89) and the diminutive Compsognathus,
assumed the erect posture.
III. OrnrrHopopa.—The division of the pubis into a pre-pubic and
a post-pubic branch, neither of which meets in the middle
line of the abdomen, forms a distinctive feature of this
group, in which the front of both jaws is devoid of teeth,
while the lower jaw is provided with a distinct premandibular
bone. ‘Teeth complicated, seldom in separate sockets. All
the forms are herbivorous. In one section (Stegosauria) the
feet are plantigrade, with more than three toes, the limb-
bones are solid, and bony plates and spines protect the body.
Scelidosaurus (42), Stegosaurus, and Hyleosaurus are well-
known genera. In a second section (Iguanodontia) the
hind-feet are digitigrade, with three functional toes, the limb-
bones hollow, and the body unarmoured. The group includes
Iguanodon (43), Camptosaurus, Trachodon, etc., all bipedal.
IV. Ceratops1a.—Includes gigantic quadrupedal Reptiles, with a
bony neck-shield, a premandibular and a prerostral bone, a
DINOSAURS. Y
pubis with only a pre-pubic branch, meeting its fellow in the
middle line, two-rooted teeth implanted in sockets, and
plantigrade, five-toed limbs. Bony plates are dotted over
the skin. Triceratops, of the North American Cretaceous, is
a well-known type.
Casts of specimens of a few remains of different members of {the
group are exhibited in Wall-Case No. 4, in which there is also a
miniature restoration of the species known as Diplodocus (41). Of the
Fig. 6.
Side view of Skull of a Sauropod Dinosaur (Diplodocus), from the Upper
Jurassic strata of Colorado, U.S.A.; one-sixth nat. size. The cleft at the
summit of the head is the nostril, and the large round vacuity the eye-
socket. The diminutive brain-case is behind and partly between the
eye-sockets. (No. 47.)
latter animal, the cast of an entire skeleton, the gift of Mr. Andrew
Carnegie, is mounted in the middle of the gallery (see Frontispiece).
Diplodocus is a representative of the Sauropod section, which
includes the largest of all land-Reptiles, and flourished during the
Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous epochs, that is to say, when the
Oolites, Wealden, and Greensands were being deposited. These
Reptiles walked on all fours; but, despite the light construction of
the neck and trunk-vertebree, were probably too heavy for much
activity on land, and dwelt near the sea or lakes, where they lived in
the shallows and fed on water-plants ; the long neck and the position
of the nostrils at the summit of the skull enabling them to breathe
when wading at considerable depths. Brontosaurus and Atlantosaurus
8 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
are other American members of the group, which was represented in
England by Pelorosaurus, Cetiosaurus, and Hoplosaurus or Ornithopsis.
Remains of these are shown in the Geological Department.
Order IIJ.—CROCODILIA.
(Cases 1-3.)
The existing Alligators, Crocodiles, and Gharials, collectively
forming this order, are large, four-footed, long-tailed reptiles, with
teeth implanted in separate sockets, which are confined to the
margins of the jaws, and the quadrate-bone firmly fixed to the skull.
The bones of the skull are sculptured, and the body is covered with
large, horny shields, underlain on the back, and sometimes on the
chest, abdomen, and limbs, by pitted bony plates. The inner
aperture of the nostrils is situated very far back on the palate, thus
enabling these reptiles to breathe while holding their prey under water.
There are five toes to the fore-feet, and four to the hind-pair.
In the skeleton, the bodies of the vertebree unite by a ball-and-
socket joint, of which the ball is behind; and the ribs articulate to
the vertebra by two distinct heads.
Species of true Crocodiles are found living in the New World as
well as in Africa and Asia ; the Alligators, with the exception of one
Chinese species, are American only, and the Gharials are Indian.
In the earlier extinct members of the group, most of which were
marine, the inner aperture of the nostrils is situated less far back on
the palate; and the vertebra articulate with each other by nearly
flat or slightly cupped surfaces. A few of the early forms-—notably
the Jurassic Metriorhynchus and Geosaurus—had no bony plates on
the back. The early Crocodilia include long-snouted (Pelagosaurus, 2)
and short-snouted types (Goniopholis, 4), which may perhaps have
respectively given rise to the modern Gharials and Crocodiles. In
these Jurassic Crocodiles the position of the posterior nostrils is
intermediate between that obtaining in modern Crocodiles and the ~
Triassic Parasuchia (Phytosaurus, 1), in which last they open almost
immediately below the external nostrils. These very primitive
Crocodilia show such a decided approximation to the extinct
Dinosauria as to indicate a close connection between the two
groups ; they are also related to the Rhynchocephalia.
The family Crocodilide is taken to include all the existing
members of the order Crocodilia. The group is characterised by
the bodies of the neck-vertebre articulating by cup-and-ball joints,
Eig. 7.
VIEW FROM ABOVE OF THE SKULL OF THE MUGGER OR INDIAN CROCODILE
(Crocodilus palustris).
< Fourth lower tooth.
(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum.)
Fia. 8.
SipE View FROM ABOVE OF THE SKULL OF A 5S. AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
(Caiman niger).
(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum.)
[To face page 8.
A
CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS, 3.
of which the ball is behind and the cup in front (procelous). The
nostrils are situated at the extremity of the snout, and their posterior
openings (choane) carried back to the hinder extremity of the skull, the
palatine and pterygoid bones developing inferior plates, which meet in
the middle line and thus prolong the nasal passage. The armour con-
sists of more than one pair of longitudinal rows of plates on the back ;
on the under surface of the body armour may or may not be present.
In common with Alligators and Caimans, true Crocodiles are
distinguished by the shortness and breadth of the muzzle, which is
either rounded-off or triangular, and the large and stout teeth, which
interlock with one another and are less numerous than in the
Gharials. The union (symphysis) between the two halves of the
lower jaw is also short, and does not include the splenial bone ; and
the nasal bones enter the aperture of the nostrils. In Crocodiles the
fourth lower tooth is received into a notch in the upper jaw (figs. 7
and 9), and the fifth upper tooth is the largest in the whole series.
The number of upper teeth ranges from 16 to 19, and there are
14 or 15 lower teeth on each side. There is no bony armour on
the under side of the body.
Crocodiles have a much wider geographical distribution than
any other members of the order. Three species, Crocodilus cataphrac-
tus (10), C. johnstoni (9), and C. intermedius, have longer and more
Gharial-like muzzles than the rest. Other species, like the American
Crocodile (C. americanus, 16), the Timsa, or Common African Croco-
dile (C. niloticus, 14), and the Indian Estuarine Crocodile ((. poro-
sus, 19), have somewhat shorter and broader muzzles. In a third
group, which includes the Muggar, or Indian Marsh-Crocodile
(C. palustris, 20), the muzzle is still broader and more Alligator-
like, and the pits in the temples are smaller than in the other
groups. One species, the West African Osteolemus tetraspis (8),
is assigned to a separate genus on account of the production of the
nasal bones to divide the aperture of the nostrils.
Together with Alligators and Caimans, Crocodiles are the largest
and most ferocious of living reptiles ; the Indian C. porosus commonly
attaining a length of from 15 to 20 feet, and occasionally reaching
even larger dimensions. Most of the species frequent rivers,
marshes, or pools, but C. porosus inhabits estuaries, and may be
met with out at sea. Crocodiles are exclusively carnivorous, and
generally seize their victims (other than human beings) by the nose
as they are drinking. A large number of people—especially women,
as they go to the rivers for water—are annually killed in India by
Cases 1-2.
Case 3.
Case 3.
10 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
these Reptiles. Crocodiles bury their eggs in the sand, where they
are hatched by the heat of the sun’s rays.
Four large specimens are exhibited on a stand in the middle of
the gallery, and the others in the wall-cases.
In case No. 3, two specimens are placed side by side in order to
show a notable difference between the skull of a Crocodile and an
Alligator (figs. 7 and 8). In the former (14a) the fourth lower
tooth is generally received into a notch on the side of the upper jaw,
while in the latter (28 @) it bites into a pit. Crocodiles have also
fewer lower teeth than Alligators; the number in the former varying
from 14 to 15, and in the latter from 17 to 22. In most Crocodiles
the skull is narrower than in Alligators, with the pits in the temporal
region (shown in the specimens in the upper part of the case) larger,
but, as mentioned above, some species of the former approximate
very closely to the latter in these respects.
Alligators and Caimans are broad-nosed Crocodilians, distin-
guished from Crocodiles, as stated above, by the fourth lower tooth
being generally received into a pit in the upper jaw, and the small
size or obliteration of the pits in the temples; the number of teeth
being from 17 to 20 in the upper, and from 17 to 22 in the lower
jaw. In the true Alligators the nasal bones divide the aperture of
the nostrils, the bony plates on the back are separate, and on the
under surface these are either very thin or wanting. In the Caimans,
or South American Alligators, on the other hand, the aperture of the
nostrils is not divided by the nasal bones, the bony plates of the back
are articulated together, and a full series of similar plates occurs on
the lower surface of the body.
Of true Alligators, one (Alligator mississippiensis, 31, fig. 10) is
North American and the other (A. sinensis, 32) Chinese—a distri-
bution explained by the occurrence of allied forms in the Tertiary
deposits of Europe. The Chinese species alone has thin bony plates on
the under surface. Both kinds inhabit swamps. The female of the
North American Alligator constructs a large nest, in which the eggs
are deposited in layers. Some species of Caiman, which may reach
20 feet in length, make regular migrations, retreating to the flooded
forests in the wet season, and returning to the rivers during the dry
months. In some districts they are called Jacares.
The Caimans (25-27) are peculiar in possessing a shield of
bony plates in the skin of the under side of the body. On the
under surface each plate consists of two distinct pieces, united by a
transverse suture. In the species of which this armour is exhibited,
Fic. 9.
SipE VIEW OF THE HEAD OF THE TimMSA OR NILE CROCODILE
(Crocodilus niloticus).
< Fourth lower tooth.
(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum.)
Fic. 10.
S1ipE VIEW OF THE HkEaAp or THE N. AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
(Alligator mississippiensis).
(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum.)
{To face page 10.
GHARIALS. Id
it is imperfectly developed, but in certain others the greater part of
the tail is invested by complete bony rings—one to each vertebra—
and the limbs are covered with small scutes of bone (27 @).
One very fine specimen of the common Caiman, or Jacare-tinga
(Caiman sclerops, 27), is exhibited in a table-case.
The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus, §), of the rivers of northern
India and Aracan, and the False or Malay Gharial (Zomistoma
schlegeli, §), of Malaysia, form a group of Crocodilians characterised
by the length and narrowness of the muzzle, and the number and
slenderness of the teeth. By most naturalists the group is included
in the same family as the Crocodiles and Alligators (with which it
agrees in the position of the inner aperture of the nostrils) ; but by
others (who regard them as the direct descendants of the long-
snouted Crocodilians of the Secondary period), Gharials are classed
in a family by themselves. In addition to the length of the muzzle,
Gharials are distinguished from Crocodiles and Alligators by the
wide separation of the nasal bones from the aperture of the nostrils,
and by the inclusion of the splenial bone in the long union (sym-
physis) between the two halves of the lower jaw. The true Gharial
has from 27 to 29 pairs of lower teeth, none of the latter being
received into pits in the upper jaw. The nasal bones are widely
separated from the premaxille. In the False Gharial, on the other
hand, the number of upper teeth is 20 or 21, and of lower teeth,
18 or 19; the tips of those on the sides of the lower jaw being
received into pits in the upper jaw. The nasal bones are in contact
with the premaxille. Gharials feed chiefly on fish, but large indi-
viduals of the Indian species will occasionally kill and devour human
beings. In England the Gharial is frequently miscalled Gavial.
The extinct Phytosaurus (or Belodon, 1), of the Triassic formation
of Europe, North America, and probably India, typifies a group of
Crocodilians (the Parasuchia), which apparently indicates a primitive
side-branch of this order. They are characterised by the bodies of
the vertebree having slightly cupped or nearly flat terminal articular
surfaces ; by the nostrils being situated far back on the skull, near
the sockets of the eyes, and by the relatively forward position of the
posterior openings of the nostrils, which are situated in front of
the palatine bones. The armour consists of two rows of broad
plates on the back, and several lateral rows of smaller ones. In the
nearly allied Steganolepis, of the Trias of Elgin, there is armour on
both the upper and lower surfaces of the body. Parasuchus, from
the Trias of India, is a third genus.
Case 1.
Case 1.
Case 5.
12 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Order IV.—RHYNCHOCEPHALIA—TUATERAS.
(Case 5.)
The New Zealand Tuatera (47) is the sole surviver of a Triassic
and Permian group, which is the most generalised of all Reptiles. In
the skull the quadrate-bone is fixed ; there are two temporal arches,
and teeth are present on the palate and the summits of the jaws, to
which they are welded. The vertebrae have concave terminal faces,
and intercentra are developed in the trunk, and chevron-bones in
the tail. Each foot is five-toed; the lower end of the humerus is
perforated on the inner side, and the abdomen is protected by a
series of small bones.
The order is divided into :—
I. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA VERA, in which the abdominal bones are
closely packed, with three elements in each transverse series,
and there are two sacral vertebre, the intercentra being
sometimes suppressed.
II. PRoTOROSAURIA, in which each series of abdominal bones
consists of a number of elements, and the intercentra are
fully developed. This group passes into the Microsauria,
among the Stegocephalan Amphibia, in which the body is
armoured, the vertebre are completely ossified, and the ribs
retain two heads.
The Tuatera itself (Sphenodon punctatus, 4], fig. 11) is a
burrowing lizard-like reptile, now confined to a few small islands
off the New Zealand coast, having been exterminated from the
mainland by pigs. These Reptiles share their burrows with birds—
shear-waters, or petrels. They feed entirely upon small living
animals, and deposit their eggs in a chamber, forming one side
of the extremity of the burrow, the shear-water occupying the
opposite side.
Casts of skulls of the extinct Rhynchosaurus (§0) from the Trias
of Shropshire, and of Hyperodapedon (49) from the same forma-
tion in both England and India, are exhibited in the case. Both
were near allies of the Tuatera, but in Hyperodapedon the teeth
formed a kind of pavement on the palate. Casts of the skeletons
of Sapheosaurus (46), from the Oolite of Bavaria, an allied type,
and of Protorosaurus lincki (48) are shown.
“aL abnd anf 07)
(‘umesnyy ey} Ul UeutLoeds & utO14)
‘purpeez Mon ‘(sngnjound uopousydg) GuvZzITT VUALVAT, AHL
Tr STH
SNAKES AND LIZARDS. 13
Order V.—PELYCOSAURIA (eztinct).
(Case 5.)
Although at one time classed with the Theromorpha, the extinct.
Permian Pelycosauria are now regarded as a distinct group, more
nearly allied to the Rhynchocephala, which they resemble in
possessing two temporal arches to the skull. The dentition gener-
ally approximates to that of the Theriodont Theromorphs. Well-
known genera are Clepsydrops, Dimetrodon, Embolophorus, and
Naosaurus ; the three latter being characterised by the tall upright
spines of the trunk-vertebree, which in some cases were equal in
length to the entire skeleton, and during life probably supported a
fin-like expansion of skin, as shown in the coloured sketch (462)
exhibited in the case.
Order VI.—SQUAMATA.
SNAKES AND LIZARDS.
(Cases 11-15 and 18-20.)
Snakes and Lizards form at the present day the most numerous
representatives of the reptilian class. They are characterised by the
circumstance that the quadrate-bone (which forms the articulation
of the lower jaw) is more or less movably attached to the skull, as
well as by the presence of only one lateral bar (temporal arch) in the
latter, and by the teeth being welded to the jaws. The body is
usually covered with horny scales; and the aperture of the vent
is transverse.
The existing members of the group are divided into three sub-
orders :—
I. OpuiprA, or SNAKES. Characterised by the fibrous union of
the right and left halves of the lower jaw, or mandible, the
absence of functional limbs, of which (at most) only minute
vestiges remain, and the elongated form of the body. The
single eye-lid cannot be moved, and is transparent.
IJ. Lacertiuia, or Lizarps. In this group the right and left
halves of the lower jaw are connected by a bony union. The
great majority possess functional limbs, movable eyelids, and
horny scales; but a considerable number have a more or
less completely snake-like form, with the reduction or loss
of one or both pairs of limbs ; and in some cases the eye-lids
Cases
11-15.
Cases
18-20.
14 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
are transparent and fixed as in Snakes, while the scales may
be rudimentary or wanting. In some of the limbless burrow-
ing forms the quadrate-bone has become more or less fixed.
Case 20. III. Rurerognossa, or CHAM@LEONS. These differ from Lizards
in several particulars; notably the separation of the toes
into two groups of three and two respectively, so that the
feet form most efficient grasping organs, and the long
extensile, club-shaped tongue. The skeleton lacks clavicles
and interclavicle ; and there are several osteological peculi-
arities in the skull, which is casque-shaped and often studded
with tubercles.
In addition to the above, there are the two following extinct
sub-orders, the members of which were marine.
Shownin IV. DonrcHosauRtA. Includes several snake-like forms typified
ee by Dolichosaurus of the English Chalk, which was over a
ment. yard in length, with the two halves of the lower jaw united
by a bony suture, two sacral vertebrae, a long neck, and the
limbs partially modified into paddles.
V. PyrnonomorPHA. ‘Typified by the gigantic Mosasaurus of
the Upper Cretaceous, and characterised by the ligamentous
union of the right and left halves of the lower jaw, the
presence of only one sacral vertebra (with which the pelvis
has no connection), and the completely paddle-like form of
the limbs.
The following are the sub-divisions of the
Order SQUAMATA.*
a. Sub-order OPHIDIA. b. Sub-order LACERTILIA.
Family Boide. Family Geckonide.
» Lyphlopide. » Hublepharide.
» Glauconude. » Uroplatide.
» Llysunde. » LPygopodide.
» Uropeltide. » Agamide.
» Aenopeltide. » Lguande.
» Colubride. » Aenosauride.
» Amblycephalide. - » Zonuride.
» Vuperide. » Angude.
* In consequence of the Cases not being all of a uniform depth, it has been
found impossible to adhere strictly to this arrangement of the families.
y
/
=
if
‘
|
’
ao
a
a
a
_
¥
; J
a
\.
od.
Fie. 12.
A.—ParRT OF THE FLATTENED SKIN OF AN AFRICAN PytHon (Python seb@).
Showing Claws representing Hind-Limbs, together with their supporting bones.
CLAW-BONE
’
“=,
ISCHIO-PuBIC RUDIMENT
6.—ComPeLEtr Bones oF THE HinpER LIMBp-GIRDLE OF ANOTHER
SPECIMEN.
RUDIMENTARY Limps oF Py?THONs.
[To face page 15,
SNAKES. g 5:
Order SQUAMATA—continued.
b. Sub-order LAcERTILIA (con-
tinued).
Family Anniellide.
» Helodermatide.
» Varanide.
» Aantusnde.
» Leude.
» Amphisbenide.
» Lacertide.
» Gerrhosauride.
» Scincide.
b. Sub-order LACERTILIA (con-
tinued. )
Family Anelytropide.
» Dibamide.
_¢. Sub-order RHIPTOGLOSSA.
Family Chameleontide.
d. Sub-order PyTHONO-
MORPHA.
Family Dolichosauride.
» Mosasauride.
Extinct.
Sub-order I.—OpHipIA—SNAKES.
(Cases 11-15.)
As the distinctive characteristics of this group have been already
given under the heading of the order Squamata, we may at once
pass to a brief survey of the more important families.
The first family is that of the Bowe, or Boas and Pythons,
among which are included the largest of living Snakes. The skeleton
retains vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs, and the latter are repre-
sented externally by small claw-like spurs near the vent (fig. 12).
On the upper surface the scales are usually small and smooth, but
those on the lower aspect form two broad series in advance of the
tail, and either a double or single row on the tail itself.
Skull of a Python; 4 nat. size. (No. 291.)
In the
m, maxillary; pm, premaxillary; q, quadrate-bone.
Case 14.
16 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
skull the quadrate-bone is supported by the horizontally extended
squamosal, which rests loosely on the side of the occipital region.
Teeth are carried in the lower jaw, and on the pterygoid, palatine,
and maxillary bones of the skull; while in some of the Pythons
(Pythonine), as distinct from the Boas (Bone), they are also borne
on the premaxille. In the Boas there is a pair of supra-orbital
bones, which are wanting in the Pythons, and the scales on the
under side of the tail generally form a single (instead of a double)
row. None of the members of this family are poisonous. The
larger kinds inhabit forests, where they climb trees by the aid of the
short and partially prehensile tail. They feed by choice on warm-
blooded animals, the bodies of which they crush in their coils before
swallowing them. Although a large Python could crush an animal
as large as a red deer, it is quite evident that it could not swallow
the carcase. The bodies of small deer are reduced by crushing
to the condition of a sausage before being swallowed. Most
Pythons lay masses of eggs, which the female protects by coiling
herself upon them.
Two magnificent specimens of the Malay Python (Python
reticulatus, 291) are exhibited, one measuring 24 feet 11 inches
in length. Among the smaller species, mention may be made of the
Australian Carpet-Snake, or Diamond-snake (P. spilotes, 288, fig. 14).
Fig. 14.
map
S=
Australian Carpet-Snake (Python spilotes). (No. 288.)
The Boa constrictor (800) is an example of a genus common to
Tropical America and Madagascar. Specimens of part of the skin
SNAKES. Mi
of a Python (287) and a Boa Constrictor (3800) are exhibited to display
the claw-like vestiges of the hind limbs and the rudimentary support-
ing bones (fig. 12). Eggs of Python sebe (287) are also exhibited.
The huge Anaconda (Lunectes murinus, 281) differs from the mem-
bers of the genus Boa chiefly by the circumstances that the innermost
of the three nasal shields of the head is in contact with its fellow, and
likewise by the absence of small scales between the labial shields and
the eye. Moreover, the muzzle is covered with large shields instead
of small scales. During life the pupil of the eye is vertical.
Anacondas are both arboreal and aquatic, and thus admirably suited
to a life in the flooded forests of tropical America. Their food
consists chiefly of mammals and birds, which are captured (mainly
at night) both on land and in the water. Specimens are stated to
attain a length of over 30 feet ; but the one exhibited is only about
18? feet. These Snakes produce their young alive.
We next come to the Burrowing Snakes, constituting the families
Typhlopide, Glauconiide, Uropeltide, and Ilysude, which are small
Snakes of more or less completely burrowing habits, in all but the
third of which traces of the pelvis remain. In the 7yphlopide (308,
304) the eyes are vestigial, there are no teeth in the lower jaw, and
the body is uniformly covered with small scales. They are entirely
burrowing and insectivorous ; and may be regarded as survivors of a
generalised group connecting Snakes with Lizards. Most of the
species belong to Zyphlops (303, 304). The Glauconide differ
chiefly by having teeth only in the lower jaw ; the pelvis and hind-
limbs are less aborted than in any other Snakes. In the Shield-
tails, or Uropeltide (297-299), which take their name from the
large shield terminating the tail, the eyes are very small, the head is
not distinct, and the scales on the lower surface of the body are
but little enlarged. The Zlystide (296) differ by the eyes being
generally free, although sometimes covered with scales. There are
vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs, the latter visible externally
as spur-like claws by the vent. Teeth (as in the Uropeltide) are
present in both jaws, but the short tail does not terminate in a
shield. Of the few species, Cylindrophis rufus (296), is exhibited,
while one of the best known is the Coral-Snake (J/lysia scytalis) of
tropical South America. All the members of this family feed on
worms, insects, and small Zyphlopide, and produce living young.
The more completely burrowing species of this group are not unlike
large worms in appearance and habits, for which, indeed, they are
not infrequently mistaken.
O
Table-
case.
Case 14.
18 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Cases 11, With the family Colubride we reach the typical Snakes, which
12,and15. comprise some nine-tenths of the Ophidia, and may be roughly
defined as normal Snakes which are neither Pythons (Boid@) nor
Vipers (Viperide). . In other words, they are Snakes with well-
developed eyes, without vestige of hind-limbs, and with normal
upper jaws, usually carrying numerous teeth. The following are
some of the chief characteristics of the family: A median longi-
tudinal groove divides the shields on the chin ; the squamosal bone
of the skull is horizontally elongated and movable ; and the pterygoid
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
A B.
Dr Neate
CUM
Heads of the Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca), Head of the Viper
A (No. 261), and the Common Snake (Tropi- (Vipera berus).
donotus natrix), B (No. 240). (No. 318.)
Heads of the three British Snakes.
bone reaches the quadrate. The family is divided into three series
and eight sub-families, as follows :—
A, AGLyPHA. The teeth solid and ungrooved.
Sub-family 1. Acrochordine.
2. Colubrine. Common Snake, Rat-Snake, etc.
a 3. Dasypeltine. African Egg-eating Snake.
B. OpIstHoGLYPHA. One or more of the hinder teeth in the
upper jaw grooved.
Sub-family 4. Dipsadomorphine. Indian Tree-Snakes.
7 5. Elachistodontine. Indian Egg-eating Snake.
» 6. Homalopsine. Oriental Water-Snakes.
C. ProrERoGLyPHa. The front upper teeth grooved or perforated.
Sub-family 7. Zlapinw. Cobras and Kraits.
i 8. Hydrophiine. Sea-Snakes.
.
4
-
SNAKES. 19
The majority of the members of series A. are harmless, but the
saliva
of the Indian Rat-Snake affects small mammals; most’ of
series B. are venomous, but not dangerously so; but all the species
Fig. 17.
C.
Skull of the Common Snake (Tropidonotus natrix). (No. 249.)
From the left side (A), above (B), and below (C).
. Angular. Jf. Frontal. pro. Prootic.
Articular. m. Maxillary. pg. Pterygoid.
. Basioccipital. n. Nasal. ptf. Postfroutal.
. Basisphenoid. p. Parietal. q. Quadrate.
. Columella auris. pl. Palatine. so. Supraoccipital.
. Dentary. pm. Premaxillary. ste. Supratemporal.
. Exoccipital. prf. Prefrontal. v. Vomer.
. Ectopterygoid.
included in C’. are deadly. Among the more noticeable specimens
belonging to the first group, reference may be made to the common
British Snake (Z'ropidonotus natrix, 240) and a continental variety
per “we
° 0 2
20 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
(241) of this species distinguished by the absence of black patches
at the back of the head. The other harmless British species is the
Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca, 261), found in England only
in the south, and there but seldom. Both these Snakes have large,
shield-like scales on the top of the head, and thereby differ from the
Viper, as shown in the accompanying cuts. Other well-known
Snakes of the group are the North American Water-Mocassin
(Tropidonotus fasciatus, 242), the Indian Rat-Snake (Zamenis
mucosus) and the American Black Snake (Z. constrictor, 250), and,
belonging to another genus, the European Four-lined Snake
(Coluber quatuor-lineatus, 253), the North American Bull-Snake (C.
melancleucus), and the South American Bushmaster (C. corais, 255).
The Australian Dendrophis punctulatus (257) is a good example of
the Tree-Snakes, while the Small-scaled Snake (Coronella micropholis,
262), with its alternate bands of black and scarlet, displays a type of
colouring very uncommon among Serpents.
An extremely interesting Snake in this family is the African
Fig. 18.
MEDuehon - se 2 eh prepa
African Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis scabra); 3 nat. size. (No. 272.)
Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis scabra, 272, fig. 18), which typifies a
sub-family (Dasypeltine) by itself. Its greatest peculiarity is that the
SNAKES.
21
lower spines of the neck-vertebree pierce the gullet, on the upper
surface of which they form tooth-like knobs adapted for crushing
the eggs on which this Snake feeds. An individual of a foot in
length is capable of swallowing a pigeon’s egg.
Sea-Snakes (Hydrophiine, 308-313) and the Cobra group
(Hlapine) form the assemblage of venomous
Colubride known as Proteroglypha (see p. 18),
and characterised by the grooving of the front
teeth in the maxillary bone, while those behind
are solid. In this respect they differ from the
Opisthoglypha, in which the reverse condition
obtains. Sea-Snakes (fig. 19), of which there are
several genera, have the tail, and sometimes the
body, compressed, for the purpose of swimming.
The scales are small, those on the lower surface
being often no larger than the rest; and the
pupils of the small eyes are round. ‘These
Snakes inhabit tropical seas from the Persian
Gulf to Central America, but one species (Distira
sempert) dwells in a fresh-water lake in the
Philippines. They are often seen far out at sea,
and die if kept long on land. All are viviparous,
and feed on fishes, which are killed with their
poison. Indian fishermen are occasionally bitten
by these Snakes, the bite sometimes proving
fatal. The largest species is the orange and
black Hydrus major (308), of which an example is
shown. Most of these snakes are coloured very
like mackerel in order to render them invisible
in the sea.
The Cobras and Kraits of the Old World,
together with the species of the American genus
Elaps, represent the Hlapinw, or second sub-
family of the group Proteroglypha, which is
distinguished from the Hydrophiine by the
cylindrical tail. There are numerous genera of
Higs 19:
Mb
A Sea-Snake (Hydro-
phis platurus) from
the Indian Ocean.
(No. 312.)
Elapine ; and the sub-family includes the majority of Australian
Snakes and all the venomous ones. The various species of Cobras
(an abbreviation of cobra di capello—* the snake with the hood”)
are characterised by the power of inflating the neck into a
hood-like expansion by an outward and forward movement of the
22 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
ribs. These Snakes are exceeding deadly. Well-known species are
the Indian Cobra (Nama tripudians, 276), the African Cobra, or
“ Asp” (NV. haie, 277), and the Giant or King Cobra (WV. bungarus,
274). ‘The Ringhals (‘banded neck’), Sepedon hamachates, is
another South African hooded Snake. The Kraits differ by the lack
of the hood; the true Krait (Sungarus coeruleus) causes more
deaths in India than any other Snake, but the Banded Krait (B.
fasciatus, 278), although larger, reaching five feet in length, does
less mischief. The Death-Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus), easily
Fig. 20.
oa
(Nara tripudians); 4 nat. size. (No. 276.)
sos The Indian Cobra
recognised by the spines to its tail,is one of the most deadly of
Australian Snakes. The South American “laps corallinus is con-
spicuous for its alternating bands of black and scarlet, separated by
narrow rings of yellow.
In this group are exhibited the ordinary and the black phases of
the Indian Cobra (Naia tripudians, 216, fig. 20), the great Indian
King Cobra, or Hamadryad (VV. bungarus, 274), and the African
Ringed Cobra (WV. haie annulifera, 277). Of the still more
venomous and deadly Indian Kraits, the yellow and black banded
species (Bungarus fasciatus, 278) is shown.
SNAKES, 23
It is a common notion that Vipers, Rattle-Snakes, and their like
(family Viperide) are the only poisonous Snakes. This is a mistake,
the Cobra, which is one of the most.deadly Snakes, not being a
member of the Viper family. It is, however, a fact that all the
representatives of that group are deadly. The Vipers and their
kindred may be distinguished by the following features. In the
fore part of the mouth is a pair of poison-fangs, supported by the
short and otherwise toothless maxillary bones, which are capable of
being vertically erected ; the scales on the under surface of the body
The Puff-Adder (Bitis arietans); 4 nat. size. (No. 315.)
are transversely elongated ; and the eyes are well developed. The
poison-fangs are tubular, having a broad hole at the front of the
base in connection with the poison-gland. Successional teeth are
developed behind the fangs in use, and take the place of the latter
when they are broken off or worn out. All the species are viviparous
as well as poisonous. The family is divided into two groups—True
Vipers and Pit-Vipers.
The True Vipers (Viperide) are confined to the Old World and
have no pit between the eye and the nose. Among familiar forms
may be mentioned the Common Viper, or Adder (Vipera berus, 318,
24 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
fig. 16), the Indian Russell’s Viper (V. russell, 320), and the African
Puff-Adder (Bitis arietans, 315), Gaboon Puff-Adder or Viper
(B. gabonicas, 817), and Horned Puff-Adder (B. nasicornis, 316).
All these African Vipers are brilliantly coloured, but the Horned
Viper (Cerastes cornutus) of North Africa is coloured to correspond
with the desert-sand. .
The Pit-Vipers (Crotaline) take their name from the presence of
a pit, which probably subserves some sense-function, between the eye
and nose. The typical American forms (Crotalus) are called Rattle-
snakes from the presence of a number of loose horny rings at the
end of the tail. Other kinds are the Water-Viper (Ancistrodon
piscivorus, 380) and the Copper-head (A. contortriz, 329) of North
America, the South American and West Indian Fer-de-lance (Lachesis
Fig. 22.
Skull of Horned Puff-Adder (Bitis nasicornis), a venomous Serpent. (No. 3]§.)
m, maxillary, with poison-fang; a bristle is inserted in the openings of the
channel at the base and point of the tooth; d, undeveloped poison-fangs ;
pm, premaxillary; q, quadrate bone.
From a specimen in the Museum.
lanceolatus, 326.4), the Indian Green Viper (L. gramineus), the
green Wagler’s Viper (Lachesis waglert, 827) of Malaysia, which
lives in trees, and the great black and orange Curucucu (LZ. mutus,
328) of Surinam.
The American Rattle-Snakes (Crotalus and Sistrurus), as already
mentioned, have at the end of the tail a rattle composed of a
number of horny rings or bell-like structures which fit into one
another. The oldest, or terminal, bell is really the horny sheath of
the tail-tip; and with each casting of the skin the youngest bell
becomes loose, but is held in place by the new covering. An eyer-
increasing number of loosely-attached bells is thus produced ; but
LIZARDS. 25
occasionally most of the bells (perhaps when worn out) drop off, and
a new set is developed. Rattles with a dozen or more bells are very
rare, especially at the present day. No indication of a Snake’s age
can be drawn from the number of bells in the rattle. Most Rattle-
Snakes have numerous small scales on the head and are included in
Crotalus, but in one species, constituting the genus Sistrurus, there
are nine large shields on the top of the head.
Specimens of the ordinary North American Rattle-Snake
(Crotalus horridus, 325) and of a much larger South American
species ((. confluentus, 323) are exhibited.
Sub-order IJ.—LAcERTILIA.—LIZARDS.
(Cases 18-20.)
The first representatives of the sub-order Lacertilia (of which
the characteristics will be found on page 13) are the Geckos, con-
stituting the families Geckonide, Eublepharide, and Uroplatide.
These reptiles take their name from the cry, ‘“ Geck-ko,” of the
common Turkish species. he members of the typical family are
four-footed lizards, without movable eyelids, and with a broad fleshy
Fig. 23. Fig, 24.
Head of Indian Gecko (Gecko verticil- Hind-leg of Indian Gecko, from
latus), to show form of eye. the lower surface, to show the
adhesive pads formed by parallel
transverse plates.
tongue, slightly notched at the tip, and capable of being protruded
from the lips. The dentition is of the pleurodont type, that is to
say, the teeth are attached to the inner side of the outer parapet of
Case 18.
26 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
the margin of the jaws. In the skeleton the bodies of the vertebre
are cupped at both ends (amphiccelous) ; the clavicles (collar-bones)
are dilated and perforated near their junction with the breast-bone ;
and the parietal bones of the skull are separate. In the second
family the vertebrae articulate by ball-and-socket joints, the eyes
have movable eyelids, and the parietals are united. The members
of the third family show no expansion of the clavicies.
Fig. 25.
ining Durh W)
i) IE SX eee es ee
A, Turkish Gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus), and B, Common Gecko (Tarentola
mauritanica).
MK il
The tail varies, being in some cases of ordinary form, and in
others trowel-shaped. Many species have the toes expanded and
furnished with adhesive structures, by means of which they are able
to climb window-panes and adhere to ceilings (fig. 24). The eggs,
which are nearly spherical and usually two in number, have hard
shells. Geckos feed on animal matter, chiefly insects, and are quite
harmless, and for the most part nocturnal. In a limited degree they
have the power of changing colour according to the nature of their
surroundings.
Fie. 26.
MALAGASY BAaRK-GECKOS.
A.—TuHE Licupen Bark-Gecxko (Uroplates fimbriatus licheni).
B.—THE Common Bark-Gucxo (Uroplates fimbriatus).
(From specimens in the Museum.)
[To face page 26,
vat i MUS ae
LIZARDS. 27
One of the most remarkable instances of protective resemblance
in this group is afforded by the Lichen Bark-Gecko (Uroplates
fimbriatus lichent, 365, fig. 26 a), which clings to the bark of lichen-
Fig. 27.
ot Mn,
(i
Cs ey
A Flying Lizard, or ‘‘ Flying Dragon ”’ (Draco'teniopterus). (Compare No. 366.)
clad trees. The close resemblance presented by the Lizard to the
bark is well exhibited by the specimen in the case. Other species
shown include the Common Gecko (Tarentola mauritanica, 355,
fig. 25 b), the Fringed Gecko (Ptychozoon homocephalum, 359) of the
Case 18.
Case 18.
28 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Malay countries, and the curious Short-tailed Gecko (Nephurus
levis, 357) of Australia.
A small number of snake-like Lizards constitute the family
Pygopodide, of which Pygopus lepidopus (886) and Lialis burtoni.
(385) are the best-known. Examples of each are shown in the case.
These Scale-footed Lizards, as they may be called, are quite destitute
of fore-limbs, and the hind-limbs are reduced to a pair of scale-like
flaps. The teeth are of the pleurodont type, the eyes are devoid of
Spine-tailed Lizards (Uromastix acanthurus) ; }nat. size. (Compare No. 377.)
movable eyelids and have the pupil vertical, and the tongue is
cleft and extensile. The long tail is very brittle.
The family group Agamide, typified by the Stellion Lizard
(Agama stellio, 310) of southern Europe, comprises a large assemblage
of Lizards differing from nearly all others in that their dentition is
of the acrodont type, that is to say, the teeth are attached to the
summits of the jaws (fig. 29 a). Other features are the broad and
short tongue, and the absence of bony plates or nodules in the skin ;
but spines, especially on the head and tail, are often present. There
LIZARDS. 29
are about 200 species, arranged in some 30 genera, all confined to
the Old World. The majority have depressed bodies and are terres-
trial; but some, in which the body is compressed, are arboreal.
Fig. 29.
Right half of the Lower Jaw of a Stellion Lizard (a), to exhibit the acrodont
dentition, and of an Iguana (b), to show the pleurodont type of dentition.
Most of the species are insectivorous, but certain kinds of Agama
have a mixed diet, and Uromasiiz (877, fig. 28) and some of its
allies feed entirely on fruits and herbs. In the Flying-Dragons
Fig. 30.
Australian Frilled Lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingi), with the frill expanded in
the ‘‘ terrifying” attitude. (No. 379.)
(Draco, 366, fig. 27) the sides of the depressed body carry wing-like
membranes supported by expansions of the ribs, by means of which
these reptiles pass from bough to bough, although they are incapable
Case 18.
30 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
of true flight, like that of a bird. The Frilled Australian Lizard,
Chlamydosaurus kingi (879), which can run on its hind-legs in a
semi-upright posture, has an expansible frill round the neck (fig. 30).
Fig. 31.
SS)
Australian Moloch Lizard (Moloch horridus). (No. 372.)
In the Indian and African Uromastiz ($71, fig. 28) the tail is spiny,
and in the Australian Moloch (872, fig. 31) the whole head and body
are covered with spines of different sizes, the body being remarkably
depressed and expanded.
The Iguanas, family Jgwanide (381-403), are the New World
representatives of the Agamidea, from which they differ by the pleuro-
dont dentition, that is to say, by the teeth being attached to the inner
side of the external parapet of the jaws (fig. 29 0). Although large
Lizards from other parts of the world are often miscalled Iguanas,
the family is chiefly American, with representatives in Madagascar
and Fiji. There are some 300 species, arranged in about 50 genera,
Fig. 32.
Tuberculated Iguana (Igwana tuberculata). (No. 381.)
which display considerable variation in form and habits. Some are
arboreal, others terrestrial or burrowing, and others semi-aquatic,
one of the latter resorting to the sea. Many of the species are
ai
LIZARDS. 3) |
herbivorous, but others subsist on insects. Of the true Iguanas, such
as Iguana tuberculata (881, fig. 32), the flesh is often eaten; the
Species grows to between 5 and 6 feet. Polychrus (402) has the
chameeleon-like power of changing its colour. Many species, notably
the partially aquatic Basaliscus (387), have spines or fin-like ex-
pansions running down the middle line of the back; and in the
so-called Californian Toad (Phrynosoma cornutum, 396, fig. 33) and
its relatives the whole body is spiny. The last-named Lizards have
the peculiar power of squirting jets of a red fluid supposed to be
blood from their eyes. In their depressed form and spine-clad skin,
these Lizards present a curious parallelism to the Moloch Lizard in
the Agamide. It will be noticed that in the more typical Iguanas,
Fig. 33.
Spiny Iguana, or Californian Toad (Phrynosoma cornutum). (No. 396.)
which are arboreal in their habits, the body and tail are much com-
pressed, and the prevailing colour is green, to harmonise with the
foliage among which these reptiles dwell. The Sea-Ieuana (Ambly-
rhynchus cristatus, 389), of the Galapagos Islands, spends much of its
time in the sea, and feeds on sea-weed. It is represented on land by
the nearly allied Conolophus subcristatus (403). Examples of other
genera, such as the Fijian Brachylophus (898) and the short-tailed
Hoplocercus (401) of Brazil, are also shown.
The two families Zonuride (426-428) and Xenosauride serve to
connect the Zyuanide with the Anguide. In both the dentition is
pleurodont, but the teeth are solid only in the Xenosauride. In
Case 20.
that family the anterior part of the tongue is retractile (as in the ©
Anguide), and bony nodules are developed in the skin of the body.
On the other hand, the Zonuride have short non-retractile tongues
like those of the Zguanide, but bony nodules are developed at least
in the skin of the head, where they roof over the temporal region.
The second family is represented only by a single species from South
Case 20.
32 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Mexico ; but the first has about 12 species, grouped in 4 genera, and
ranging over South and Tropical Africa. In the typical genus ©
Zonurus (426-427), the whole of the body and tail is encased in
bony plates, the horny coverings of which form sharp spines, especi-
ally on the tail. These Lizards inhabit desert districts. Specimens
of several species are exhibited in the case.
The group of Lizards (family Anguwide) typified by the English
“Slow-Worm” has a pleurodont dentition, with the teeth solid.
The tongue consists of two portions, of which the front half is
notched and capable of being withdrawn into the basal half. Bony
plates are developed in the skin of the body and head, and roof over
the temporal region of the skull. There is a marked tendency
Fig. 34.
The Slow-Worm (Anguwis fragilis) ; } nat. size. (No. 429.)
throughout the family to a reduction of the limbs, culminating in
their complete loss in the Slow-Worm. ‘Traces of the shoulder and
pelvic girdles always persist. The long, brittle tail is readily
replaced. All the species (40 or so in number, and arranged in
seven genera) are terrestrial and feed on animal substances; and
some at least, like the Slow-Worm, produce living young. In the
American genus Gerrhonotus there is a pair of folds running along
the sides of the body, and the limbs are well developed. Similar
folds oceur in the Glass-Snakes (Ophisaurus, 431), but the limbs are
represented only by a pair of flaps in the neighbourhood of the vent.
In the Slow-Worm (Angwis fragilis, 429, fig. 34) no external trace of
the fold or limbs remains; the notion that the creature is venomous
LIZARDS. 33
is entirely erroneous. Fine specimens of the South European
Scheltopusik, or Glass-Snake (Ophisawrus apus, 481) are exhibited.
The so-called Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum, 424, fig. 35) of
Mexico and an allied species from New Mexico and Arizona, alone
constitute a family (the Helodermatide, or Poisonous Lizards) charac-
terised by the presence of recurved fang-like teeth loosely attached to
the lower jaw, which discharge poison through open grooves secreted
by special glands. The dentition is pleurodont, the tongue is cleft at
Fig. 35.
MEVurinann
The Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum) ; 4 nat. size. (No. 424.)
the tip, and the bony plates in the skin are small, and communicate
the peculiar granular texture to the upper surface. The Gila
Monster is a creature of lethargic and nocturnal habits, crawling
about in the evening in search of worms, frogs, centipedes, and
Iguanas’ eggs. Frogs are paralysed, if not killed, by the bite, which
is also dangerous to human beings, although rarely productive of death.
In captivity these Lizards eagerly break eggs and lap up the contents.
During the hot season they become torpid.
A very rare Bornean Lizard (Lanthanonotus borneensis) is nearly
allied to the Helodermatide, from which it is distinguished by the
D
Case 19.
Case 19.
Case 19.
34 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
absence of grooved teeth (and therefore probably Bs poison-glands)
and of bony granules in the skin.
The members of the family Varanide (407-420), which include
the largest of all Lacertilia, derive their common name of “ Monitors,”
or “ Warning Lizards,” from a confusion between “ Ouaran,” the
Arabic designation of a Lizard, and the English word “ warning.”
Agreeing with many other members of the sub-order in having the
teeth attached to the inner side of the outer parapet of the jaws
(pleurodont type), Monitors are specially characterised by the long,
smooth, and forked tongue, which can be protruded and withdrawn
in the same manner as that of Snakes ; and they are further dis-
tinguished by the absence of plates of bone in the skin of the head
and body. The group is confined to the warmer parts of the Old
World (inclusive of Australia), although unknown in Madagascar.
All the species are included in the genus Varanus, of which the
largest living representative is the Kabara-goyu (V. salvator, 409) of
the Singalese. This attains a length of 7 feet, and, like some of the
other species, is partially aquatic; but it was considerably exceeded
in size by a fossil Monitor from N. India which, in its turn, was a
dwarf to the extinct Giant Monitor of Queensland, of which a
vertebra (419) is shown in the case. All the Monitors are car-
nivorous, many of them being in the habit of feeding largely on
birds’ eggs, which they hold and crack in their mouths while their
heads are raised.
It will be noticed that the Monitors differ markedly from the
typical arboreal Iguanas, both in shape and colouring ; their bodies
being depressed, instead of compressed, and their colour usually
a mixture of black, brown, olive, and yellow. The reason of these
differences is that these Lizards are terrestrial, and live among bushes,
grass, rice, and other covert, to which their type of colouring
assimilates them. By Europeans in India and Africa Monitors are
generally mis-called Iguanas.
The American Lizards typified by the Tejus (family Tedd) are
characterised by the solid teeth, which are almost of the acrodont
type, by the long and deeply cleft tongue, furnished with numerous
papillae, and the absence of bony plates or granules in the skin.
Occasionally the limbs are somewhat reduced. The members of this
family are arranged in nearly forty genera, and display great variety
of form and habit. Some dwell in forests and are aboreal, others
frequent hot and dry plains, while yet others are limbless, Blind-
worm-like creatures. The largest member of the family is the Great
LIZARDS. 35
Teju (Tupinambis teguixin, 421), which reaches a yard in length.
Dracena guianensis is peculiar in having cheek-teeth of a molar-like
type. Ameiva dorsalis (428) is a smaller West Indian species.
The Amphisbeenas (family Amphisbenide, 436-437) are worm-like Case 20.
and for the most part limbless tropical Lizards which take their name
from their power of progressing either forwards or backwards. They
are degraded, or perhaps specialised types ; and are characterised by
having the body covered with soft skin, which forms numerous rings
and shows only vestiges of scales. The genus Chirotes alone retains
short and four-clawed front-liimbs. About a dozen generic types are
recognised, of which the typical Amphisbena (486) contains the
greatest number of species. Amphisbeenas lead an underground
burrowing existence, like worms ; and are often found in ants’ nests
and refuse heaps. Their movements are worm-like, the soft, ringed
skin enabling them to move with equal facility in either direction.
Unlike other limbless Lizards and Snakes, which move in lateral
undulations, Amphisbznas crawl in a straight line with slight
vertical folds of the body. All are Tropical American.
The common English Lizard and its allies are the types of a family Case 20.
(Lacertide, 440-445) characterised as follows : The teeth are pleuro-
dont, 7.e. attached to the inner side of the margin of the jaws ; the
long tongue is forked, with either tubercles or folds ; there are bony
plates on the head ; and the temporal region of the skull is roofed
Fig. 36.
{] Wreapeiee
Bere Prctenge ld Bun ’ Wt)
The Eyed Lizard (Lacerta ocellata); 4 nat. size. (No. 441.)
with bone. The family is restricted to the Old World and includes
less than a score of genera. The most familiar forms of the typical
D 2
36 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
family are the Common Lizard (Lacerta vivipara), in which the ~
young (from 6 to 12 in number) burst the eggs just before or just
after they are laid, the Sand-Lizard (L. agilis, 443), the Green Lizard
(L. viridis, 442), the Wall-Lizard (L. muralis, 444), and the beautiful
Eyed Lizard (L. ocellata, 441, fig. 36). All of these are European, but
only the first two occur in England. The Spanish Lizard (Psammo-
dromus hispanicus) represents a genus distinguished by the absence
of a semi-lunar collar of enlarged scales on the front of the neck.
Variation in the South European Wall-Lizard (Lacerta muralis)
is illustrated by coloured figures.
The family Gerrhosauride (438, 439) comprises a small assemblage
of African and Malagasy Lizards characterised by their pleurodont
dentition, the long and slightly cleft tongue, which is furnished with
tubercles, and the presence of bony plates in the skin of the head
and body, roofing over the temporal region of the skull. In addition
to the typical Gerrhosaurus (439), there are the genera Tetradactylus,
Cardylosaurus, Zonosaurus (438), and Tracheloptychus.
Mb Purtarm
—
=s
Airey
Stump-tailed Skink (Trachysawrus rugosus) ; 4 nat. size. (No. 374). -
Case 20. The Common Skink is the type of a large and cosmopolitan family
of Lizards known as Scincide (455-474), or Skinks, and presenting
the following characteristics. The dentition is pleurodont, 7.¢. the teeth
are attached to the inner side of the margin of the jaws; the tongue
is scaly and but slightly notched ; and bony plates are developed in
the skin of the head and body. Skinks prefer dry sandy ground, on
which they move rapidly and in which they burrow ; the frequent
reduction or even loss of the limbs being connected with the
burrowing habit. Most produce their young alive ; the usual hard
LIZARDS AND CHAMALEONS. 37
ege-shell being frequently absent. About 400 species are known,
which have been grouped in nearly 30 genera. The family attains its
greatest development in the Austral-
asian region. Fig. 38.
One of the most remarkable types (Oe fe
is the Stump-tailed Skink (Zrachy-
saurus rugosus, 474, fig. 37), recog-
nisable by its large and rough scales
and short tail. The Australasian 7%li-
qua (457-458) includes large species
with stout button-shaped teeth. The
True Skinks have 5-toed limbs with
the lateral toes serrated ; the common
species (Scincus officinalis, 463), which
grows to about 8 inches, has a per-
fectly smooth skin, and wedge-like
head. It was cnce esteemed a
sovereign remedy for many diseases.
Mabwa (456), with about 40 species,
is remarkable for including one semi- et ee Ue
aquatic form (CL . vittata). The Eyed HC Ratciaes vitorieeton:
Skink (Chaleides ocellatus, 462) of the c, Chalcides tridactylus.
Mediterranean countries, which grows 4, Lygosoma lineo-punctulatum.
to 10 inches, is a member of a genus e, Chalcides guentheri.
in which the lower eyelid has a trans-
parent ‘‘ window,” the scales are smooth and shiny, and the limbs
short or rudimentary (fig. 38). A series of specimens illustrating
the degradation of the limbs is shown.
Hind-legs of Skinks, to show
the gradual abortion.
Sub-order IIJ.—Rurprogiossa.—CHAM @LEONS.
Chameleons (446-454) constitute by themselves not only the Case 20.
family Chameleontide, but also the sub-order Rhiptoglossa—a group
of equal value with the Lacertilia. From Lizards Chameleons are
distinguished by the structure of the tongue, which is club-shaped,
and can be extended to a length equal to that of the whole body
(fig. 39) ; and by the form of the head, which is somewhat helmet-
shaped. There is no tympanum, or drum, to the ear, and no
tympanic cavity. The long limbs are also of a peculiar type, having
two of the toes opposed to the other three, so as to form an effective
grasping foot (fig. 40). Clavicles, or collar-bones, as well as an
38 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
inter-clavicle, are absent. The lone tail, which is not of a brittle -
and renewable type, is prehensile and curled downwards when used
as a grasping organ.
The skin is covered with granules in place of scales ; and the
Head of the Common Chameleon (Chameleon vulgaris), with the
tongue partially protruded.
eyes are very large, with the eyelids united into one fold, having
a minute central opening. Hach eye can be moved independently ;
and the movements of the limbs are slow and sluggish. As in
all arboreal Lizards, the body of the Chameleons is much compressed
Fig. 40.
Fore-foot of a Chameleon.
laterally. Chameleons are famed for the capacity of changing
colour according to the nature of their surrounding—a power which
they share, however, with certain Lizards such as those of the genus
Calotes. They feed on flies and other insects, which are caught
at a distance of several inches on the sticky end of the protrusile
tongue (fig. 39). Most species lay eggs, but a few are viviparous.
In the majority the prevailing colour is brown or green, but in the
ICHTHYOSAURS. 39
Arabian Chameleon calyptratus (451), of which a specimen is exhibited,
the body is marked by vertical bands of blue and yellow. All the
species are confined to the warmer parts of the Old World.
Fig. 41.
Order VII.—_ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (A7ztinct).
(Case 17.)
The Ichthyosaurs were Whale-like marine Reptiles which flourished
from the period of the New Red Sandstone, or Trias, to that of the
Chalk. The limbs are modified into paddles, in which the bones
of the digits exceed the normal number, and are more or less
shortened and broadened so as to form a pavement-like structure.
The teeth, which are generally fluted, are implanted in grooves in
the long jaws. A ring of overlapping bones is developed in the
white (sclerotic) of the eye. The bodies, or centra, of the vertebree
are short, doubly-cupped, and separate from the neural arches.
The Triassic Merriamia and Mixosaurus were comparatively small
Reptiles, in which the ribs of the trunk are single-headed, the radius
40 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
and ulna of the front-paddle (like the tibia and fibula in the hind- ~
limb) are elongated and separated by a wide cleft, while the other
bones of the paddles are also somewhat elongated, often notched on
Fig. 42.
Skeleton of Ichthyosawrus communis, with outline of body and fins indicated in shading, from the
Lower Lias of Lyme Regis; about one-thirtieth nat. size.
one or both borders, and arranged in three rows. In Ichthyosaurus
(347, 348), on the other hand, the radius and ulna are transversely
expanded and in apposition, while the other bones of the paddle are
also very short and broad, and the ribs are two-headed. In certain
species, the paddle-bones are arranged in three longitudinal rows,
i
_
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 4l
with notches on the outer border of those of the front row ; but
in another group there are five or more longitudinal rows of these
bones, which are generally without marginal notches. In Ophthalmo-
saurus ($51), of the Kimmeridge Clay, a third bone (the pisiform)
articulates with the humerus, an analogous condition obtaining in
the hind-limb. Both in Ophthalmosaurus and the allied American
Laptanodon the teeth were rudimentary.
Order VIII.—CHELONIA.
TORTOISES AND TURTLES.
(Cases 6 to 10.)
Tortoises, Terrapins, and Turtles, which collectively constitute
this order, are distinguished from all other Reptiles by the toothless
horn-covered jaws, and the enclosure of the body in a bony shell,
which may or may not be covered with horny shields. The shell,
which consists of an upper half, or carapace, and a lower portion,
or plastron, is supported by the spines of the vertebrae and the ribs ;
and consequently Chelonians present the unique peculiarity that the
shoulder and pelvic girdles are situated within the ribs. The limbs,
which are five-toed, may be adapted for walking (Tortoises) or
modified into paddles (Turtles). Hach rib articulates with the
vertebree by a single head, and the quadrate-bone is firmly united
to the skull. This order dates from the Triassic epoch.
Chelonians are arranged in two main divisions: the Athece and the
Thecophora. In the former group, now represented by the Leathery
Turtle, or Luth, the vertebre and ribs are free from the carapace
(fig. 45), which is composed of small polygonal plates like mosaic, and
covered with horny skin. In the second group, the vertebrae and ribs
are fused with the carapace (fig. 44), which is composed of a number
of bony plates of variable size, the names and relations of which are
shown in case 6. In this group, as shown in the figure on page 52,
the number and size of the horny shields do not accord with those of
the underlying bones.
The Thecophora are subdivided into the following three groups :
1. CRyproprra, or those in which the head is retracted in a
vertical plane by an S-like flexure of the neck (fig. 55), and
the pelvis is not attached to the plastron.
2. PLEURODIRA, or those in which the head is retracted in a
horizontal plane by a lateral flexure of the neck (fig. 56), and
some of the bones of the pelvis are welded to the plastron.
42 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
3. TRIONYCHOIDEA, or those with very flat oval or almost round -
shells, covered with soft leathery skin, and broadly webbed
limbs, of which only the three middle toes are clawed.
The following table shows the chief sub-divisions of the group :
Order CHELONIA.
J. Section ATHEC A. it. Sub-order PLEURODIRA.
Family Sphargide, or | Family Pelomeduside.
Dermochelydide. | .. Chelydide.
| .. Carettochelydide.
Plesiochelydide.\ Ex-
i. Sub-order CRYPTODIRA. | .. Miolanide. hae
Family Chelydride.
II. Section THECOPHORA.
ili. Sub-order AMPHICHELYDIA.
‘cide
e we ers: Week | Family Pleurosternide
.. Cinosternide. | (eetrnes)
Platysternide. | :
i: Testudinide. | iv. Sub-order TRIONYCHOIDEA.
Chelonide. | Family Zrionychide.
Upper (A) and Lower (B) Shells of the Green Turtle (Chelone mydas), to show
arrangement of the horny plates.
n. Nuchal. se. Supracaudal. g. Gular. a. Abdominal
v. Vertebral. im. Inframarginal. h. Humeral. i Reno t
ce. Costal. ig. Intergular. p. Pectoral. an, Anal.
m. Marginal,
SKELETON OF LuTH oR LEATHERY TURTLE (Dermochelys coriacea).
To show complete separation of shell from the ribs. (No. 186a.)
Fig. 45.
SKELETON OF GREEN TURTLE (Chelone mydas).
To show union of shell with ribs. (No. 182.)
(From specimens in the Museum.)
[To face page 42.
ra ivi Lig as
“\oo* Seo,
\. te
LEATHERY TURTLES. 43
Section ATHECAS.
LEATHERY TURTLES.
The only living representative of this group is the Luth or Table-
Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea, 180, fig. 46), the largest of “°"
Fig. 46.
by 5 a
WoRTH Jc YTAc
Butterworta JS MED vthem
Luth, or Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) ; young specimens; lower
and upper view. (No. 180.)
existing Chelonians, which sometimes measures as much as six and a
half feet from the muzzle to the hind border of the carapace, the
length of the shell being about four feet. Such a specimen would
weigh about half a ton. In common with a number of allied extinct
Turtles, mostly referable to the family Sphargidi, or Dermochelydide,
the Luth is characterised by the vertebree and ribs being free from
the carapace, which is composed of small polygonal plates of bone,
covered with a continuous leathery skin. The limbs are in the form
of paddles, and the neck cannot be withdrawn into the shell; there
44. GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Upper and Lower views of Skull of Luth, or Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys
coriacea), showing the absence of a secondary floor to the palate and the
consequent forward position of the posterior nostrils. :
is no plastron. The Luth is met with in all tropical seas, though
it is everywhere rare; specimens are occasionally carried by the
Gulf Stream as far north as England. In spring these Turtles
resort to the Bahamas, Tortugas, and the coast of Brazil, to lay
their eggs on sandy shores. They are exclusively carnivorous,
feeding chiefly upon mollusks, crustaceans and fishes. The flesh
is unwholesome. This species is represented in the gallery by the
cast of a fine specimen (180) caught on the coast of Trevandrum,
Travancore, India, and presented by the director of the Trevandrum
Museum, and also by the skeleton shown in fig. 45. Remains of a
much larger extinct species (Hosphargis gigas) occur in the London’
clay.
The accompanying illustrations (figs. 47 and 48) are intended
to show the remarkable difference of the bony palate of the Luth
from that of ordinary Turtles.
TORTOISES AND TERRAPINS. 45
Fig. 48.
Upper and Lower views of Skull of Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata),
showing the presence of a secondary floor to the palate and the conse-
quent backward position of the posterior nostrils.
Section THECOPHORA.
Sub-order I.—Crypropira (S-necked Tortoises).
The Cryptodira, or S-necked Tortoises, which constitute the
majority of living Chelonia, are characterised, as already mentioned,
by the head being drawn in by an S-like bending of the neck in
a vertical plane so that the head occupies the centre of the front of
“the shell (fig. 55). Unlike the Pleurodira, in which the bones of the
pelvis are welded to the upper and lower shells, their bones are free.
Specimens are exhibited in case 9 to illustrate the essential differences
between the Cryptodira and Pleurodira.
Of the three living representatives of the family Chelydride (15-117), Case 6.
Case 6.
46 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Skeleton of a Land Tortoise, in a vertical section through the carapace,
showing the mode of retracting the neck in a vertical plane.
c, neck; v, dorsal vertebre ; ¢, tail; 7, costal plates of carapace; pl, plastron ;
s, shoulder-bones; p, pelvis.
or Snappers, two are from North America, while the third is from
Ecuador ; fossil species occur in the Tertiary rocks of Europe. The
nuchal bone of the carapace has rib-like processes underlying the
costals. The large head (which is furnished with a beak) and neck
cannot be withdrawn into the shell ; and the temporal region of the
skull is partially roofed. The long tail has the articular surfaces of
most of the vertebree cupped behind. Inframarginal horny shields
separate the marginals of the carapace from the abdominals of the
plastron, which is cruciform and united to the carapace by a narrow
bridge. Temminck’s Snapper (Macroclemmys temmincki, 1, fig. 50)
has a ridged, while the two species of Chelydra (76 and 77) have a
smooth shell.
Snapping Turtles live in deep pools or sluggish streams, keeping
mostly to the bottom, although rising from time to time to breathe,
and occasionally landing. ‘They are carnivorous, feeding on fish
and waterfowl, and inflict dangerous bites.
The Tortoises of the small Central American family Dermatemydide
(73 and 74), for which there is no collective English name, resemble
the Chelydride in that the nuchal plate of the carapace gives off a pair
of rib-like processes underlying the costals ; and also by the pectoral
shields of the plastron being separated from the marginals by a
sae v '
TORTOISES AND TERRAPINS. 47
series of inframarginals. They differ by the open temporal region
of the skull, as well as by the small size or absence of the gular
shields, and the short tail. Some of the hinder costal plates overlap
the neurals so as to meet in the middle line. In Dermatemys (74) the
large plastron, which is firmly joined to the carapace, carries at least
eleven shields, and there are four inframarginals. In Sfauroty-
pus (78) the plastron is cruciform, with the front flap movable, and
Fig. 50.
Temminck’s Snapper, or Alligator-Terrapin (Macroclemmys temminckt) ;
4 nat. size. (No. 75.)
seven or more shields; the number of inframarginals being two.
Nothing is known of the habits of either group.
The Mud-Terrapins (family Cinosternide, 66-72) resemble the
Chelydride and Dermatemydide in the presence of rib-like processes
to the nuchal bone of the carapace, but differ from these and all other
Chelonia in the absence of an entoplastral bone to the plastron, which
thus has eight, in place of the usual nine, bones. The neck can
be completely retracted within the shell, the temporal region of the
Case 6.
Cases 6-7.
Case 6.
48 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
skull is completely open, and the tail is short, with the bodies of the
vertebrae cupped in front. Some of the neural plates of the carapace
are hidden by the costals meeting in the middle line. Inframarginal
shields are present, but do not completely cut off the marginals from
the abdominals. In some species, the plastron has two transverse
hinges, so that the shell can be completely closed.
The Burmese Casked Terrapin (Platysternum megacephalum, 68),
representing the family Platysternide, differs from the three pre-
ceding families by the absence of rib-like processes to the nuchal bone
of the carapace. In this respect it agrees with the Testudinide, from
which it is distinguished by the presence of inframarginal shields
between the marginal and the abdominal shields of the plastron. The
head is very large, and the temporal region of the skull completely
roofed over by bone, in a manner unknown in any other Terrapin.
The tail is long, with the articular ends of most of the vertebra
cupped behind. Except that it is aquatic, nothing is known of the
habits of this rare and curious Terrapin.
In the more typical Tortoises and Terrapins, constituting the large
family Testudinide (78-1175), the nuchal bone of the carapace lacks
rib-like processes; and, owing to the absence of inframarginals,
the abdominal shields of the large plastron abut on the marginals.
The head, limbs, and tail can be drawn within the shell; the
temporal region of the skull is open, and the articular ends of the
vertebrae of the short tail are cupped in front. From the terrestrial
herbivorous Tortoises to the aquatic carnivorous Batagurs there
is a transition through the Terrapins. The former have the shell
vaulted and lay spherical eggs; while in all the aquatic forms the
shell is depressed, the feet are webbed and have longer claws, and
the eggs are oval.
The Hinged Tortoises (Cinyzis, 141, 142) of Tropical Africa are
unique in having the hinder part of the carapace movable, the hinge
passing between the 7th and 8th marginal and the 4th and 5th costal
plates. There is no hinge in the plastron. In some species the margins
of the carapace are smooth, but in others they are serrated and turned
up. Of the latter type is Conyais erosa (142), a species further remark-
able for the absence of a nuchal shield to the carapace, and the prolon-
gation of the front of the plastron, which forms a fork, covered by the
intergular shields. This species lives on vegetable substances, and is
said to be partly aquatic, but C. delliana (141) is believed to be entirely
terrestrial. The Spider-Tortoise (Pyzis arachnoides, 143) of Mada-
gascar is a purely terrestrial species, without any joint in the
TORTOISES AND TERRAPINS. 49
carapace, but with a hinge in the plastron. It does not exceed four
inches in length.
The typical Land Tortoises included in the genera Testudo Case T.
(147-176) and Homopus (144, 145) are characterised by their
vaulted shells, in which the plastron is normally without a hinge
and firmly united by a strong bridge to the carapace. The feet,
of which the hind-pair are club-shaped, are not webbed, and have
not more than two joints to each toe. On the front of the
fore-limbs the skin carries stout horny shields, sometimes under-
lain by bony nodules, and large shields cover the head. The tail
is short. Usually the neural bones of the carapace are alternately
quadrangular and octagonal, but they may be hexagonal, with the
shorter lateral surfaces posterior; the costals are alternately wide
and narrow at the ends. Generally the supracaudal shield is single.
Tortoises of the genus Testudo range throughout the warmer parts
of the world except Australasia and some of the Malay Islands.
The majority of existing Land Tortoises are of small or medium
size, but a number of island species attained much larger dimensions.
Within historic times the distribution of species of Testudo large Case7 and
enough to be called gigantic has been restricted to two areas. These saison
are the Galapagos (Tortoise) Islands, on the Equator off the west cases.
coast of South America, and certain islands on the western side of
Fig. 51.
The Abingdon Island Saddle-backed Tortoise (Testudo abingdom), remarkable
for the thinness of its shell, from the Galapagos group. (No. 153.)
From a specimen in the Museum.
the Indian Ocean, including the Mascarenhas (Reunion, Mauritius,
and Rodriguez), the Aldabra group, the Amirantes, and the-
EB
Case 6.
50 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Seychelles. From Madagascar they disappeared at an earlier date ;
earlier still Giant Tortoises inhabited most of the continents.
‘Formerly the Tortoises swarmed on the above-named islands in
the Indian Ocean ; but they were carried off by the ship-load for
food, and some of the species are only known by specimens which
had been transported from their native homes. These Tortoises are
vegetable-feeders, and in the Galapagos subsist chiefly upon succu-
lent cactuses, leaves, and berries. At certain times of the year they
collect at particular pools and springs, to which they travel long
distances, forming regular, well-trodden paths. They ascend the
volcanic cones to a height of 4000 feet. These Tortoises live to a
great age. For instance Marion’s Tortoise (Testudo sumeire), living
in 1902 at Port Louis, Mauritius, was brought to that island in 1766
from the Seychelles, of which it is a native ; at the time of transport
it was probably a century old. The North Aldabra Tortoise
(7. gigantea, 148) survives only in the Seychelles, but the South
Aldabra species (7'. daudini, 152) is still found in its native island.
Specimens of the former weigh between 350 lbs. and 400 Ibs.
In some of the species, as in 7’. ephippium (149) and TZ’. abingdoni
(153, fig. 51) of the Galapagos, and the extinct Z. vosmeri of
Rodriguez, the bony shell is extremely thin, being reduced to
detached plates in the two former.
The largest specimen exhibited is that of the North Aldabra
T. gigantea (148) ; the shell of an extinct species from Madagascar
(7. grandidiert, 154) is shown alongside.
The two North American species of Box-Tortoise (Cistudo, 138-
140) take their name from the circumstance that the plastron (which
is attached to the carapace by ligament) is divided by a transverse
hinge into two movable lobes in such a manner that, when the head,
limbs, and tail are withdrawn, the shell can be completely closed.
The carapace is vaulted, the toes are almost completely free, and the
tail is short.
Box-Tortoises are really Terrapins which have taken to a life on
land, and to this they are so thoroughly adapted, that they are
drowned if thrown into water. The shape of the head, the
vaulting of the shell (which is black and yellow or orange-brown
in colour), and the short front-toes are adaptations to terrestrial
life. On the other hand, the long hind-toes and broad feet, the
smooth covering of the head, the mainly carnivorous habit, and the
oval eggs proclaim descent from aquatic forms. ‘The Carolina
species varies greatly in colour, the eyes being red in the males
TORTOISES AND TERRAPINS. 51
and brown in the females. Box-Tortoises are kept as pets in
the United States, and attain a great age.
The Pond-Tortoises (Zmys, 109, 110) are the typical and least Case 6.
specialised members of a large number of, for the most part aquatic,
genera, which diverge in one direction into the thoroughly aquatic
Batagurs and in the other into the land Tortoises. They have more
or less depressed shells and generally webbed feet ; and the majority
are carnivorous. The distinctions between the different genera are
Fig, 52.
BurreRwoRrife
SQ Durham
The Painted Terrapin (Chrysemys picta); 4 nat. size. (No. $6.)
chiefly based on the form and relations of the bones of the shell, the
structure of the skull, etc., so that they are not apparent externally.
The Pond-Tortoises, of which there is one European and one
North American species, are thoroughly aquatic, and feed on small
fishes, worms, etc. ; during winter they bury themselves in the mud.
Nearly allied is Clemmys (111-115), one European species (C. leprosa,
115) of which is characterised by its offensive smell and the growth of
a fungus on the shell. The well-known salt-water Edible Terrapin
(Malacoclemmys terrapin, 91), of the United States, belongs to a
kindred genus distinguished by the breadth of the palatal surface of
E 2
Case 6.
52 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
the upper jaw. The Painted Terrapin (Chrysemys picta, $6, fig. 52)
typifies another North American genus, most of the members of which
are distinguished by their bright colouring and the elaborate patterns
on the shell especially when young. Ocadia (101) is now exclusively
Chinese, although fossil species occur in the Tertiary rocks of Europe.
Bellia (102, 103) and Damonia (105-108) are Indian, the former
easily recognised by the balloon-shaped vertical shields of the cara-
pace. Another Indian genus is Geoémyda (127-130), the members
of which are to a great extent terrestrial, and thus indicate a transi-
tion towards those species of land Tortoises, like Zestudo emys (1172),
in which the shell is flatter than usual.
A group of aquatic Oriental Tortoises, for the most part of large
size, are (from the Indian name of the typical species) collectively
designated Batagurs. They include the genera Kachuga (96-99),
Carapace of the Thurgi Batagur (Hardella thurgi), with the horny shields
removed ; much reduced in size. The wavy lines show the divisions (or
sutures) between the bones; the firm lines indicate those between the
overlying horny shields. c. 1-8, costal bones; m. 1-11, marginal bones ;
m. 1-8, neural bones; nw. nuchal bone; py. pygal bone; spy. 1, 2, supra-
pygal bones. (No. 13].) Note that the horny plates do not correspond
with the bony ones.
TURTLES. 53
Callagur (94), Batagur (18), Hardella (131, fig. 53), Brookia (100),
and Liemys (93), of which the two latter are confined to Borneo.
They are characterised by the strength of the buttresses connecting
the upper with the lower shell, which project as vertical partitions into
the shell. In Kachuga the 4th vertebral shield is so elongated as to
cover 4 or 5 of the subjacent neural bones ; and in the small K. tectwm
the middle line of the vaulted shell forms a ridge terminating in a
protuberance on the 3rd vertebral. Of the other three Indian genera,
Batagur is distinguished by having two ridges on the palate (in place
of one), and only four claws in the fore-limb. Kachuga tectum (96)
is one of the commonest Tortoises in the dykes about Calcutta.
The true Turtles, family Chelonide, have paddle-like limbs, and a Case 8.
Fig. 54.
bur pepWdepel ye
Young Hawksbill Turtles (Chelone imbricata); 4 nat. size. (No. 181.)
flattened heart-shaped carapace, composed of comparatively few bones,
firmly welded to the ribs and vertebree, and covered with horny shields.
The short neck cannot be completely drawn into the shell, and the
temporal region of the skull is roofed with bone (fig. 48). There is no
Case 9.
54 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
rib-like process to the nuchal plate of the carapace ; the entoplastron
of the lower shell (as in the Chelydride) is dagger-shaped. Each
flipper has one or two claws. The existing members of the family
are marine, but the females come ashore on sandy coasts to lay their
spherical eggs. In the edible Green Turtle (Chelone mydas, 182) the
horny shields, of which there are four costal pairs, do not overlap,
and there are vacuities between the costal and marginal bones of the
carapace. The Hawksbill (C. imbricata, 181, fig. 53), the chief source
of commercial “ tortoise-shell,” is distinguished by the circumstance
that, except in old age, the shields of the carapace overlap like slates
onaroof. The Loggerhead (7halassochelys caretta, 179), the largest of
all, differs from the others by having at least five pairs of costal horny
shields on the carapace, as well as by the obliteration of vacuities in
the latter when adult. Of extinct forms, the Eocene and Cretaceous
Lytoloma has the secondary bony floor of the palate prolonged back-
wards so as to cause the posterior nostrils to open near the occiput ;
the symphysis of the lower jaw being also extended backwards.
Allopleurum hofmanm, a gigantic species of the Upper Cretaceous, is
allied to Chelone in the structure of the shell ; specimens are exhibited
in the Geological Department. |
Commercial tortoise-shell of the best quality is yielded only by
the Hawksbill; specimens are exhibited to show this product in its
raw state and when polished.
Sub-order II.—PLeuRopirA (Side-necked Tortoises).
The chief distinctive characteristics of this group, which is
confined at the present time to the southern hemisphere, are given
above on page 41. The most easily seen of these is the manner in
which the head is withdrawn into the shell by a lateral movement of
the neck, as shown in fig. 56.
The family Pelomeduside is typified by the African and Malagasy
genus Pelomedusa (210), but also includes the Great Arrau Tortoise,
or “Turtle,” Podocnemis expansa (204), of the Amazons. In all the
members of this group the neck is completely retractile within the
shell, and the plastron has eleven bones, in consequence of the presence
of a pair of mesoplastral elements (fig. 57), which, however, meet in
the middle line only in Sternotherus (212). Podocnemis differs from
Pelomedusa by the roofing-over of the temporal region of the skull.
The female of the Great Arrau Tortoise is much larger than the
male. To the natives of Amazonia this species is of great commercial
‘Fo abnd aon oj) (‘sueutroeds Surat, wloay sernSg yI0g)
‘yoou oy4 Jo oinxey
[eroqye, @ Aq peey oy SuTZoVIyeI Jo opow MOYS OF,
‘(wabvu snuwyjouiajg) ASIOLUOT, NvurlaownaIg y
‘9G “ST
‘ouvld [Bola0A B UL Yoou 314
JO 9AIND S8YI[-G uv Aq UMBIPYYIA SI peoy oy} MOY MOYS OF,
‘(smgnjoowm sndowof{) ASIOLMOY, NVAIGOLdAUQ ¥
SIDE-NECKED TORTOISES. - 55
importance, on account of the food-supply afforded by its flesh and
eggs. Most of the eggs are converted into oil, which is used either
for food or for burning. - The soft-shelled eggs are laid in holes dug
Fig. 57.
Right halves of Upper (A) and Lower Shells (B) of an extinct Egyptian Side-
necked Tortoise (Stereogenys cromeri) to show presence of a mesoplastral
bone (Ms.p.).
ig. intergular; g. gular; n. humeral; pect. pectoral shields; nw. nuchal; v.'—v.5
vertebral ; Pyg. pygal; Hy.p. hyoplastral; Hyp.p. hypoplastral; Ent. ento-
plastral bones,
by the females in the sand. The adults, which are mainly aquatic,
subsist chiefly on fruits falling from the overhanging trees into the
water.
The Matamatas, as the members of the family Chelydidw may be
collectively called (although that name properly belongs only to the
Case 8,
Case 8.
Case 9.
56 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
typical South American species), differ from the Pelomeduside by the
circumstance that the neck cannot be completely withdrawn into the
shell, and likewise by the absence of a mesoplastral element in the
plastron, which thus includes only nine bones. A nuchal shield, which
is invariably wanting in the Pelomeduside, may be present on the
carapace in this family. The true Matamata (Chelys fimbriata, 185,
fig. 58) is a very remarkable creature, carnivorous in habit, and passing
its time at the bottom of the Brazilian rivers. The shell is raised into
several knob-like prominences, and the skin of the neck and the
sides of the head are developed into a number of moss-like processes,
which probably serve to attract fishes within reach. On these fishes
and other vertebrates the Matamata feeds ; owing to the weakness of
the creature’s jaws, it is probable that they are swallowed whole.
Fig. 58.
ey ee = = Pa
The Matamata Tortoise (Chelys fimbriata) ; reduced. (No. 185.)
Hydromedusa (202), Platemys (200), Rhinemys (195), and Hydraspis
(192) are also South American, but the other kinds are Australasian.
The extinct Horned Tortoises forming the family Miolanide
(193, 194) are gigantic, and apparently Pleurodiran, species, charac-
terised by the presence of large flanges and prominences on the skull,
one pair of which resembles horns in form and position. The tail is
also invested in a bony armour recalling that of the Armadillos among
Mammals. The geographical distribution of the family is very remark-
able, species of the typical and only genus occurring in Australia and
Lord Howe Island on the one hand, and in Patagonia on the other.
Sub-order II].—AMPHICHELYDIA (extinct).
Family Pleurosternide.
The extinct Oolitic Tortoises of this family, like Plewrosternum
bullockt (203), resemble the living Sternotherus among the Pelome-
SOFT TORTOISES. 5
duside in having mesoplastral bones (fig. 57) which extend com-
pletely across the lower shell to meet in the middle line. They differ
from living Pleurodira in that when the pubic bones of the pelvis
articulate with the xiphiplastral elements of the plastron, the union
is not by suture or anchylosis ; hence they are assigned to a distinct
group, the Amphichelydia.
Sub-order I[V.—TRionycHorpEA (Soft Tortoises).
The Soft River Tortoises, or Mud-Turtles (family Zrionychide, Case 10.
fig. 59), which retract the head and neck in a vertical plane with an
Borrewoprnfe mép urham
Young American Soft Tortoises (Trionyx ferox). (No. 296.)
S-like flexure, after the manner of the Cryptodira, constitute a group
of equal rank with the latter. They are characterised by the flatness
58 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
of the oval or nearly round shell, which is sculptured externally, and
covered with leathery skin instead of horny shields. The toes are
extensively connected by webs, but only the three inner ones on
each foot are clawed. In the plastron the entoplastral is chevron-
shaped. Soft Tortoises are carnivorous, and widely distributed ;
they date from the Cretaceous epoch.
Most of the species belong to the typical genus Trionyx (222-230),
nearly allied to which are the Oriental genera Chitra (220) and Pelo-
chelys (221), the former distinguished by the elongated skull and
forward position of the eyes, and the latter by an intermediate con-
dition in these respects. The African Cycloderma (217) and Cyclan-
orbis (216), together with the Indian Emyda (219), differ not only
in the nature of the sculpture and the form of the bones of the lower
shell, or plastron, but likewise in possessing a pair of flaps of skin on
the lower surface beneath which the hind-limbs can be withdrawn.
Many of the species have curious eye-like spots on the back, and
the long extensile neck is often marked with yellow spots on a green
ground. Indeed, the native Indian name Chitra means spotted.
These Tortoises, when of large size, are highly dangerous to bathers.
Order [IX.—SAUROPTERYGIA (eatinct).
(Case 16.)
The larger marine Plesiosaurs may be distinguished from the
Ichthyopterygia by the absence of a ring of bones in the eye, and
by the structure of the paddles, in which the bones, although in
excess of the usual number, are more or less elongated, and do not
articulate to form a pavement. In the more typical forms the upper
arches of the vertebre are welded to the bodies, with which alone
(in all cases) the single-headed ribs articulate. The teeth have
separate sockets, and there is but one (the lower) temporal arch.
Abdominal ribs are developed on the under surface. The bones of
both shoulder-girdle and pelvis develop large ventral plates; the
coracoids and sometimes even the scapule meeting in the middle
line. The skin appears to have been naked. The group ranges
from the Trias to the Chalk.
In the typical Plestosaurus (336, fig. 60) of the Lias the head is
comparatively small and the neck elongated, similar features occurring
in the Jurassic Cryptoclidus (340) and Murenosaurus and the Creta-
ceous Cimoliosaurus, which are distinguished by the structure of the
shoulder-girdle and pelvis. In the gigantic Pliosaurus (839) of the
PLESIOSAURS. 59
Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays the head is large and the neck short,
while the teeth may be trihedral instead of conical. The upper arches
of the vertebrze were loosely attached to the bodies.
t'
Luy )
Wy;
I
IMA Qn00»
}
»)
S
SY
Fig. 60.
Skeleton of a typical Plesiosaur (Plesiosawrus macrocephalus) with outline of body and tail-fin
NAVAS
from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis; about one-eighteenth nat. size.
fading,
(Compare No. 338.)
indicated in s
AU
The smaller Triassic representatives of the group, such as
Neusticosaurus (343) and Lariosaurus (842), were probably amphi-
bious or terrestrial, and had limbs of a more normal structure. They
_ approach the primitive Rhynchocephalia.
In some restorations, Plesiosaurs are represented with the neck
60 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
curved in a swan-like fashion ; but from the fact that the vertebree
of the neck articulate with one another by means of slightly concave
surfaces (instead of by ball-and-socket joints), such a curvature was
apparently impossible.
OF UNCERTAIN POSITION,
Group PLACODONTIA (eztinct).
(Case 5.)
In this place may be mentioned the extinct Triassic reptiles
known as Placodus and Cyamodus (§1), mainly represented by their
skulls. These skulls are characterised by their broad and flattened
shape, and by the presence on the palate of a small number of bean-
like teeth, evidently adapted for crushing hard substances; in
addition to which there are two or three pairs of chisel-like teeth
in the front of the jaws. The systematic position of these reptiles
is still a matter of uncertainty. The cast of a fine skull. of Cyamodus
is exhibited.
Order X.—THEROMORPHA (Mammal-like Reptiles—eztinct).
(Case 5.)
The members of this extinct group are confined to the Permian
and Triassic epochs, and are abundant in South Africa and Russia.
They are connected on the one hand with the Stegosaurian Amphibia,
and on the other with the Monotreme Mammalia, to the latter of
which they exhibit resemblances in the structure of the skeleton,
and of which they seem to have been the ancestors. In the skull
the quadrate is fixed, and there is a large parietal foramen; the
pubis and ischium of each side of the pelvis meet in the middle line
to form a symphysis; the shoulder-girdle consists of three bones,
and the humerus has a perforation (entepicondylar) at the lower
end. The two temporal arches of the skull have coalesced into one,
corresponding to the cheek-arch of Mammals. The group is divided
into the following sub-orders :—
I. PartasaurraA.—The skull is completely roofed over by &culp-
tured bones, so that the only vacuities on the upper surface
are formed by the nostrils, eye-sockets, and parietal foramen.
The teeth are relatively small, and form an even series.
Pariasaurus (§2) was a large uncouth reptile, measuring
nearly 8 feet in length (inclusive of the short tail) and
between 2 and 3 feet in height.
MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILES. 61
II. CorynosauriA.—Typically a North American group, distin-
guished by the roofing-over of the temporal region of the
skull (sometimes with a small foramen), the presence of
more than 2, 3, 8, 4, 3 joints to the toes (the number in the
Pariasauria). Procolophon (§9) and Empedias (58) are well-
known genera, in which the cheek-teeth have transversely
elongated molar-like crowns.
III. THERIopoNTIA.—The temporal region of the skull shows
large vacuities, and the single temporal (zygomatic) arch
in some cases (Cynognathus, §4) exhibits a vacuity indicative
of its double origin. The teeth are typically differentiated
into incisors, tusks, and a cheek-series; the lower tusks
biting in front of the upper pair. Galesaurus (§]) and
Cynognathus (§4) are typical forms. The position of Z'rity-
lodon (56), in which the teeth are of a different type, and those
of the cheek-series extremely Mammal-like, is uncertain; the
skull has the pre-frontal and post-frontal bones of Reptiles.
IV. Dicynopont1A.—In this group the teeth are reduced to a pair
of long per-
manently-
growing upper
tusks, or are
altogether
wanting ; and
the jaws were
probably
sheathed in
horn. The
quadrate - bone
is greatly
elongated, and
thus forms a Right side of Skull of a Theriodont (4/lurosawrus
, felinus), two-thirds nat. size, with two upper
a eee teeth nat. size (a, b), from the Triassic Forma-
Fig. 61.
support of the tion, Cape Colony. Behind the large socket
lower jaw. of the eye the skull is broken away. (No. 53.)
Dicynodon
(63), Udenodon, and Ptychosiagum, are well-known examples.
Casts of skulls and other parts of the skeleton of several of the
more striking forms, such as the theriodonts Cynognathus (54) and
Ailurosaurus (§8, fig. 61), as well as Dicynodon (63) and Paria-
saurus (§2), are exhibited.
62 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Il.—THE AMPHIBIAN SERIES.
Class AMPHIBIA, or BATRACHIA.
(Table-Case in Middle Line of Gallery.)
As already mentioned, Frogs, Toads, Newts, and Salamanders are
commonly regarded as Reptiles; but, together with certain allied
creatures, they differ, as a whole, from true Reptiles by several well-
marked features, and they are accordingly assigned to a separate
class, the Amphibia, or Batrachia. A general feature of this class
is the marked difference between the young (commonly called tad-
poles) and the adults ; the former living in water and breathing by
external gills, while the latter are largely terrestrial and breathe by
lungs. Some types, such as the Olm, are, however, permanently
aquatic and gill-breathing ; while in certain Frogs the transformation
process is hurried through within the eggs from which full-formed
Frogs emerge. In the living kinds the skin is mostly smooth, clammy,
and devoid of scales. The skull articulates with the first vertebra by
two knobs or condyles instead of by one, as in Reptiles. The hind-
limbs (when present) are nearly always five-toed in the adult, but
the front-limbs are very generally four-toed.
The following table exhibits the orders and families into which
the class is divided.
» Ranide (Frogs).
pe >
Order I. ave <a : _,) Family ms :
TR * Dactylethride.
Toads). S a
fa », Discoglosside.
pits » Pelobatide.
= ey », Bufonide (Toads).
ay = » Hylide.
Brake ,, Cystignathide.
B(
S S ,. Dyscophide.
S = » Lngystomatde.
See a » Dendrobatide.
aL
S
FROGS AND TOADS. 63
Order II.—URODELA . . . Family Amphiumide.
(Salamanders and Newts.) 5» Sadlamandride.
» Prolede.
» NSirenide.
» LIT—APODA a) aie » Caeciliide.
(Coecilians.)
» IV.—STEGOCEPHALA . 5 Labyrinthodontide, etc.
(Eetinct.)
Order: (kA NUR A:
Froas AND TOADS.
The members of this order are sufficiently characterised by the
fact that in the fully adult condition the tail is completely absent,
Fig. 62.
The Common Frog (Rana temporaria). (No. 442.)
in addition to which may, however, be mentioned the peculiar but
well-known form of the body, and the more or less marked elonga-
tion of the hind limbs. In the skeleton the spinal column is very
short, and terminates posteriorly in a long spine from behind the point
where the pelvis is articulated to the transverse processes of the several
64 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
vertebree. There are four front toes. Owing to the absence of ribs,
Frogs, like other Amphibians, can only breathe by swallowing air.
The order is divisible into three main groups, the first of which,
forming the section Firmisternia, includes the Typical Frogs, or
Ranide (480-493), the Dendrobatide (499-500), Lngystomatide
(494-498), and Dyscophide (401, 402). All these are character-
ised by the presence of a tongue and by the union of the two
inferior bones of the shoulder-girdle, or coracoids, in the middle
line of the chest to form a firm bar. In the Ranide the trans-
verse processes of the sacral vertebra form simple rods, and
there are typically teeth only in the upper jaw, although in
Giinther’s Frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri, 490) of the Solomon
Islands, these are developed in both jaws. The Dendrobatidw have
both jaws toothless. The Enyystomatide and Dyscophide differ by
the expanded sacral transverse processes. In the former teeth are
lacking in both jaws, but in the latter they are developed in the
upper one, while in Genyophrys, which may represent a family, the
lower jaw is alone toothed. Some Ranide, like Rhacophorus (491),
are arboreal and have adhesive toe-pads and webbed feet, but it is
Fig. 63. untrue that they use the latter as a
parachute. Certain species deposit their
egos enveloped in foam in mud or grass
on the banks of ponds. Many kinds of
Rana, like the Bull-Frog, have internal
or external dilated vocal sacs. All the
American Dendrobatide live in trees.
The largest representative of the
group is the huge Rana guppy: (483),
of the Solomon Islands; of this Frog
both the mounted skin and the skeleton
are shown. Another well-known, al-
though much smaller, species of which
mail a specimen is exhibited is the Indian
1 Tiger-Frog, R. tigrina (487). The
Bones of the chest of Goliath Common Frog (R. temporaria, 482), the
Frog (Leptodactylus penta- continental Edible Frog (R. esculenta,
dactylus) to show structure 4§5), and the American Bull-Frog
characteristic of the Toad (RP catesbiana, 488), are also shown in
rome the case.
The Toads (Bufonide, 413-420) may be regarded as the typical
representatives of the section Arcifera, which also includes the
families Discoglosside (485-439), Pelobatide (440-442), Hylide
FROGS AND TOADS. 65
527-534), and Cystignathide (507-512), and is characterised by the
circumstance that the coracoid bones overlap one another on the chest
instead of meeting by their edges in the middle line (fig. 63). The
Hind Foot of a Tree Frog (Hylobates palmatus) to show expanded
tips of the toes.
Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris, 515) and the great Brazilian Water-
Toad (B. marinus, 520) are shown. The Cystignathide differ from
the other families in having the transverse processes of the sacral
vertebra cylindrical, instead of expanded at the extremities. Of the
Fig. 65.
The Pouched Frog (Nototrema marsupiatum), with eggs in pouch. Ecuador.
(No. §33-)
four families in which these processes are expanded, the Hylid@ are
distinguished by having claw-shaped terminal toe-bones. Of the
three families without claw-shaped terminal toe-bones, the Discoglos-
F
66 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
side are characterised by the presence of ribs and of teeth in the
upper jaw, while the Bufonide have neither ribs nor teeth, and the
Pelobatide are distinguished by the absence of ribs coupled with
the presence of teeth in the upper jaw.
Of the Discoglosside common European examples are the Fire-
bellied Toad (Bombinator igneus, §38) and the Mid-wife Toad (Alyies
obstetricans, 587). The former is a poisonous species, protected by its
bright “warning” colours. The males of the latter species carry
the spawn coiled round their limbs, as shown by a specimen in the
Fig. 66.
The Horned Toad (Ceratophrys cornuta), Brazil; reduced. (No. 541.)
case. The Claw-heeled Toad (Pelobates fuscus, 540) is a familiar
continental representative of the Pelobatide. Of the Bufonide there
are two British species, the Common Toad (§15) and the Natterjack
(513) ; the largest species being the Brazilian Water-Toad. The
Hylide, or 'Tree-Frogs, are brilliantly coloured arboreal forms. Some
of these, like the Pouched Frog (Wototrema marsupiatum, 533,
fig. 65), carry their eggs in a pouch in the loins, and others adhering
to the skin of the back. The Cystiynathidw, which may be regarded
as the South American representatives of the Frogs, include the
FROGS AND TOADS. 67
Goliath Frog (Leptodactylus pentadactylus, 508), the Horned Toad
(Ceratophrys cornuta, fig. 66) of Brazil, and the smaller Esquerzo (C.
ornata, 10) of Argentina. The latter is a fierce creature, attacking
and killing animals as large as rats, and uttering a bell-like note.
The members of the families Dactylethridw, 543 (or Xenopodide),
and Pipide differ from other Frogs and Toads by the absence of the
The Clawed Toad (Xenopus levis), Tropical Africa. (No. 543.)
tongue. They are consequently arranged in a sub-order (Aglossa)
of equal value to a second (Phaneroglossa) which includes the sections
Firmisternia and Arcifera. The Clawed Toads (Xenopus, 5439, fig. 67),
which are the typical representatives of the family Dactylethrida,
have teeth in the upper jaw and sharply pointed toes, of which the
front ones are free, while those on the hind-feet are united by webs.
These toads are entirely aquatic. The Surinam Toad (Pipa ameri-
F 2
68 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
cand, §44, fig. 68), representing the Pipide, is quite toothless, and has
each front-toe terminating in a kind of star ; the fore-toes being free
and the hind-ones webbed. The shape of this Toad is very peculiar,
the head being depressed and triangular, and the eyes minute. In
both sexes the skin is covered with tubercles ; and in the breeding
Fig. 68.
A Female Surinam Toad (Pipa americana) with young emerging from
the brooding pouches of the back. (No. 544.)
season the skin of the back of the female assumes a spongy structure
and forms pouches for the reception of the eggs, which are put in
position by the male. Eventually each egg becomes completely
concealed in its pouch, which is furnished with a lid; and in these
pouches the young undergo their development, until they make their
appearance as fully-formed Toads. In habits the Surinam Toad is
completely aquatic.
SALAMANDERS AND NEWTS. 69
Order II.—URODELA.
SALAMANDERS AND
NeEwts.
The members of this group, which are chiefly confined to the more
northern countries of the Northern
Hemisphere, are characterised by the
possession in the adult state of a tail
and at least the front pair of limbs,
whence they are termed Tailed Am-
phibians. Of the four families, the
Amphiumide and Salamandride. lave
maxillary bones in the skull; the
second of these families differing from
the first by the presence of movable
eyelids. The Proteide are distin-
guished from both the above by the
absence of maxille, and the permanent
retention of external gills; while the
Sirenide, in which the gills are also
persistent, differ from all the rest by
the lack of hind-limbs. The larvee
are always aquatic, but the adults may
be terrestrial. Occasionally, as in the
Axolotls of Mexico, the larval condition
is permanent, although the reproductive
functions become fully developed.
Among the members of the Am-
phiumide, mention may first be made
of the Giant Salamanders, a group
which now contains only two species,
the North American “ Hellbender ”
(Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis, 549)
andthe Giant Salamander of Japan and
China (Megalobatrachus maximus, 548),
the latter of which grows toa length of
5 feet, and differs from the former by
the absence of a gill-opening. It is
solely on this difference that the two
species are assigned to genera apart.
Fig. 69.
The Three-toed Salamander
(Amphiuma means). (No. 550.)
A third species occurs in the Miocene Tertiary strata of Kurope.
Both the living forms are carnivorous.
The Japanese species lives
70 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
in small mountain-streams, where it lies concealed under stones, etc.,
and feeds on fishes, amphibians, worms, and insects. Like its
American relative, it will readily take a bait, and it is caught for
food by the natives. It does not appear ever to leave the water.
A specimen has lived in captivity for over 50 years.
The typical representative of the family is the eel-like Three-
toed Salamander (Amphiuma means, 550, fig. 69) of North America.
Passing on to the family Salamandride, of which the distinctive
features are mentioned on page 69, we have the North American
Tiger-Salamander (Amblystoma tigrinum, 552) as the typical repre-
sentative of the sub-family Amblystomatine, which includes seven
The Axolotl; the egg-laying larval foun of Amblystoma tigrinum, Mexico.
(No. §52.)
genera, characterised by the grouping of the palatal teeth and
the number (four or five) of hind-toes. Ordinarily A. tigrinum
undergoes the usual development and transformations, commencing
life as an aquatic creature with external gills, and passing when adult
into a terrestrial air-breathing Salamander. In the lakes near the city
of Mexico the species remains, however, permanently in the aquatic
gill-bearing- condition (fig. 70), parca its kind while in this
state. To the natives these permanent larvee are known by the name
of Axolotl. They are frequently brought to this country and repro-
duce in the gill-bearing phase, but occasionally, even in captivity, have
been seen to leave the water and change into gill-less Salamanders.
SALAMANDERS AND NEWTS. Th
The Spotted Salamander is the type of a sub-family (Salaman-
drine) distinguished from the Amblystomatine by the palatal teeth
forming a double series diverging behind. In the true Salamanders
these teeth form a pair of Ss, while in the Newts they are A-shaped,
as a rule. Of Salamandra there are three species, the Spotted
(S. maculosa, §61), the Alpine CS. atra, §62), and the Caucasian Sala-
mander (S. caucasica). They all have five hind-toes and a rounded
tail. The young are aquatic, but the adults live under moss or stones.
Fig. 71.
The Common Smooth Newt (Molge vulgaris). Male and female.
The spotted species exudes a poisonous fluid from the skin, which,
together with its peculiar colouring, has probably given rise to the
legend of its being fire-proof. The young are bornalive. The Newts
(Molge, 558-560), of which there are some eighteen species, have
_ the tail compressed, and frequently furnished, at least during the
breeding-season, with an upright fin. They frequent cool moist
situations, and during the breeding-season take to the water, where
the tadpoles are born ; in winter, like Salamanders, they hibernate.
ee GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
There are three British species. ‘They all have five hind-toes, but
in the genus Salamandrine these are reduced to four.
The Slimy Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus) is the type of a
sub-family (Plethodontine) of which all the members except the Sar-
dinian Salamander (Spelerpes fuscus, 554) are American. They are
characterised by the transverse arrangement of the palatal teeth, and
the presence of teeth-bearing plates on the parasphenoid, or basal
bone of the hinder part of the skull. In Spelerpes (with five hind-
toes) and Janculus (with four) the tongue is attached only by a
central stem ; in the other three genera it is fixed along the whole
middle line, and cannot be protruded. Of these latter, Andides is
peculiar in the small number and large size of its teeth ; Batra-
choseps, in addition to its slender form, differs from Plethodon in
having four, in place of five hind-toes. Many of the species of
Spelerpes lay their eggs under stones, in water ; but those of Andides
are deposited in the crevices of the bark of trees, where the adult
Salamanders also dwell, and the young are born in an advanced state.
Two remarkable North American Salamanders (the Mud-eel,
Siren lacertina, §65, fig. 73, and Pseudobranchus striatus) constitute a
family (Sirenide) characterised by the retention of three pairs of
fringed gills, the eel-like form, the absence of hind-limbs, and the
short fore-limbs, which are either three- or four-toed. The eyes
have no lids, but shine through the transparent skin. Curiously
enough, the external gills of the young shrivel up, but are re-
developed later. In the adult Pseuwdobranchus the gills are covered
with skin, so as to be useless. Svven is found in ditches and ponds,
where it burrows in the banks, but is said to occasionally leave the
water. When swimming, the limbs are closely pressed to the body,
movement being effected by the tail.
The typical representative of the family Proteide is the Olm
(Proteus anguinus, 564, fig. 72) of the subterranean waters of
Carniola, Carinthia, and Dalmatia, which is carnivorous and lives in
total darkness. Three pairs of fringed external gills persist through-
out life; and there are three front and two hind-toes. The eyes
are buried beneath the opaque skin, which turns black after long
exposure to light.
The subterranean waters of Texas are the home of a very similar
creature (Typhlomolge rathbunt), with longer limbs, of which the front
pair has four and the hind pair five toes.
The ancestral type from which both the above are derived is
doubtless represented by the North American Four-toed Salamander
SALAMANDERS AND NEWTS. (5)
(Necturus maculatus, 462), in which the eyes are functional and each
limb is four-toed. The thick stalks of the three pairs of external
Fig. 73.
Fig. 72. The Olm (Proteus anguinus), from the caves of Carniola. (No. 5G4.)
Fig. 73._ The Mud-eel (Siren lacertina), from North America. (No. 565.)
gills are brown, but the terminal fringes during life are blood-red.
A specimen is exhibited.
74 GUIDE TO REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
Order IIJ.—APODA.
LIMBLESS AMPHIBIANS.
The few representatives of this group (often known as Ceecilians)
Fig. 74.
\\ \\
A Limbless Am-
phibian ( Ur@otyph-
lus africanus).
are worm-shaped burrowing creatures (568)
from Tropical America and some of the warmer
parts of the Old World (fig. 74). Limbs and
their supporting girdles are lacking, the tail
is short, and the vertebrae, which articulate
by concave surfaces, carry long ribs, none
of which meet a breast-bone. The body is
covered with a slimy skin, which may contain
embedded scales, thrown into transverse folds
or rings. The skull is solid, with much of the
upper surface roofed in by bone, although this
roof is not comparable with that of the Stego-
cephala. In some species, at any rate, the
external gills are shed while in the egg, but
the larva inhabits the water, although the
burrowing adult is so completely terrestrial
that it will drown in that element. The eggs
of some Indian and African species are ranged
in a cluster, round which the parent coils her-
self. Ccecilians feed on worms, etc. Some
kinds are viviparous, and their larve do not
enter water.
Order IV.—STEGOCEPHALA (eatinct).
LABYRINTHODONTS.
The earliest known terrestrial four-footed
creatures occur in the Carboniferous strata,
and are succeeded by allied types in the Permian
and Trias. They take their name of Stego-
cephala from the circumstance that the whole
upper surface of the skull is roofed in by
membrane-bones, which are frequently sculp-
tured. The complicated internal structure of
the teeth in one group has given rise to the
name Labyrinthodonts, by which they are also known. Although
2 EE — —_——
LIMBLESS AMPHIBIANS. ‘te
displaying many signs of affinity with Reptiles, they resemble
Amphibia in having two condyles to the skull (when any are
present), and the vertebre are of a simple type. The chest was
in many cases protected by a shield formed of three sculptured bony
plates, of which the middle one appears to represent the inter-
clavicle and the lateral pair the clavicles of other vertebrates. In
form they were mostly salamander-like. The order is divided into
Fig. 75.
The Skull of a Labyrinthodont (Mastodonsaurus giganteus), upper view with
sculpture omitted, from the Lower Keuper of Wiirtemberg; about
one-eighth nat. size. Hp. lateral supratemporal: Fr. frontal; Ju. jugal;
ZL. lachrymal; Mx. maxilla; Na. nasal; P. parietal; Pr.f. prefrontal ;
Pt. postfrontal; Pt.o. postorbital; Q.J. quadratojugal; S.7. prosqua-
mosal; S.Oc. inner supratemporal; Sg. squamosal. The double lines
indicate slime canals.
four groups: (I.) Branchiosauria, typified by the minute Protriton,
or Branchiosaurus of the Permian ; (II.) the snake-like Aistopoda,
of the Carboniferous and Permian ; (III.) Microsauria, represented
by Hylonomus of the Carboniferous and Hyloplesion of the Permian,
both small forms approximating to the Rhynchocephalian Reptiles ;
and (IV.) Labyrinthodonta, which includes the larger forms, such as
Mastodonsaurus (fig. 75), Loxomma (§72), and Rhytidosteus (578), and
ranges from the Upper Carboniferous to the Trias. Other specimens
exhibited are Brachyops (510) from India and Capitosaurus (571)
from England.
* & * “a
2 Eee SD 2 QMAD qon¢
GUIDE-BOOKS.
(To be obtained only at the Museum.)
General Guide to the British Museum (Natural History), 8vo. 3d.
Guide to the Galleries of Mammalia, 8vo. 6d.
atehiete oc Gallery of Birds, 4to. 2s. 6d.
—____-_— General Series of Birds, 4to. 6d.
___________ Nesting Series of British Birds, 4to. 4d.
—__——___— Shell and Starfish Galleries, 8vo. 6d.
—__—_—1+ Coral Gallery, 8vo. 1s.
—_________— Fossil Mammals and Birds, 8yo. 6d.
—__—____— Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fishes, 8vo. 6d.
—_—_—+—— Fossil Invertebrates and Plants, in two parts, at 6d. each.
—_—_____-—— Mineral Gallery, 8vo. 1d.
Index to the Collection of Minerals, 8vo. 2d.
An Introduction to the Study of Minerals, with a Guide to the Mineral Gallery,
8vo. 6d.
-~—__________— to the Study of Rocks, 8vo. 6d.
= to the Study of Meteorites, 8vo. 6d.
Guide to Sowerby’s Models of British Fungi, 8vo. 4d.
——-—_ the British Mycetozoa, 8vo. 3d.
———— an Exhibition of Old Natural History Books, 8vo. 3d.
CATALOGUES, Etc. (Selection).
Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats. Woodcuts. 1870, 8vo. 4s.
—Carnivorous Mammalia. Woodcuts. 1869, 8vo. 6s. 6d.
~Seals and Whales. 2nd edition. Woodcuts. 1866, 8vo. 8s.
Supplement. Woodcuts. 1871, 8vo. 2s. 6d.
List of the Specimens of Cetacea. 1885, 8vo. Is. 6d.
Catalogue of Ruminant Mammalia (Pecora). Plates. 1872, 8vo. 3s. 6d.
— Marsupialia and Monotremata. Plates. 1888, 8vo. £1 8s.
— Birds. Vols. VI.-XXVII. Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. 1881-99,
8vo. 14s. to 36s. a volume.
Hand-list of Birds. Vols. l-IV. 1899-1903, 8vo. 10s. each.
Catalogue of Birds’ Eggs. Vols. I.-IV. Coloured Plates. 1901-5, 8vo. 25s.
to 30s. a volume.
—_____——— Chelonians. Woodcuts and Plates. 1889, 8vo. 15s.
—______— Jjizards. 2nd edition. Vols.1.-III. Plates. 1885-87,8vo. 20s.
. to 26s. each.
—_____—— Snakes. Vols. I.-III. Woodcuts and Plates. 1893-96, 8vo. 17s. 6d.
to £1 6s. each.
—_____— Fishes. 2nd edition. Vol. I. Woodcuts and 15 Plates. 1895,
8vo. 1bds.
CATALOGUES (Selection)—continued.
Catalogue of Spiders of Burma. 1895, 8vo. 10s. 6d.
——— the Leech Collection of Palearctic Butterflies. Two Coloured
Plates and Portrait. 1902, 4to. 20s.
—__—_-_——— Moths (Lepidoptera Phalenz). Woodcuts and Coloured Plates.
Vols. I.-V. 1898-1905, Svo. Text 15s. to 18s. a volume.
Plates issued separately at 15s. or 16s. a volume.
Monograph of the Culcide, or Mosquitoes. Vol. HI. Text illust. 1903,
8vo. £1 1s.
— Tsetse-Flies. Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. 1903, 8vo. 15s.
Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera. Vol. I. 1904, 8vo, 10s.
Catalogue of British Hymenoptera. 2nd edition. Pt.I. New Issue, Plates.
1891, 8vo. 6s.
—________ British Echinoderms. Woodcuts and Plates. 1892,8vo. 12s. 6d.
———__———- Madreporarian Corals. Vols. I-V. Plates. 1893-1905, 4to.
18s. to 35s. a volume.
Illustrations of the Botany of Captain Cook’s Voyage round the World in
H.M.S. ‘Endeavour’ in 1768-71. Pt. I. 101 Copper Plates. 1900, fol.
25s. Pt. II. 142 Copper Plates. 1901, fol. 35s. Pt. III. 77 Copper Plates.
1905, fol. 25s.
Catalogue of African Plants. Vol. I., in 4 parts. 1896-1900, 8vo. 4s. to 7s. 6d.
apart. Vol, II.,in 2 parts. 1899-1901, 8vo. 6s. a part.
Monograph of British Lichens. Part I. 74 Woodcuts. 1894, 8vo, 16s.
—the Mycetozoa. 78 Plates and 51 Woodcuts, 1894, 8vo, 15s.
History of the Collections. Vol. I. Libraries; Botany; Geology; Minerals.
1904, 8vo. 15s.
Catalogue of the Books, Manuscripts, etc., in the British Museum (Natural
History). Vols. 1., II. 1903-4, 4to. 20s. a volume.
First Report on Economic Zoology. Woodcuts. 1903, 8vo. 6s.
Second - oe - 1904, 8vo. 6s.
Report on the Zoological Collections made .... during the Voyage of H.M.S.,
‘ Alert,’ 1881-82. 54 Plates. 1884, 8vo. £1 10s.
—_-————- Collections of Natural History made in the Antarctic Regions
during the voyage of the ‘Southern Cross.’ 53 Plates. 1902,
roy. 8vo. £2.
A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). Woodcuts and Plates.
1900, 8vo. 20s.
Handbook of Instructions for Collectors. 3rd edition. 1906, 8vo. 1s. 6d.
The foregoing publications can be purchased of Messrs. Lonamans & Co.,
39 Paternoster Row; Mr. QuaritcH, 15 Piccadilly ; Messrs. KeGan Paun,
TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Dryden House, 43 Gerrard Street, Soho; and
Messrs. Dutau & Co., 37 Soho Square; or at the Naruran Hisrory
Musrum, Cromwell Road, London, S.W. A more detailed list can be
obtained on application to the Dirrcror of the Museum.
a+
ln? edhe sine
i
Bipert
Hd agg
oe
e
ee a ee
cece
waar e
pote Sets:
Sexe east=
= :
reheree
ryt
aH
He
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11